What are the four traditional media sectors?

film, television, radio, print publishing

television, film, online articles, streaming

radio, magazines, billboards, photography

film, radio, podcasts, social media

How has the film industry evolved over time?

Technological advancements like CGI and streaming

Use of only black and white films

What significant change occurred in television in the 1950s?

Increased popularity and the transition to color

What challenges does radio face today?

Competition from streaming services

What digital adaptations have print publishers made?

Offering digital content and ebooks

Shutting down publishing houses

What impact has streaming had on traditional media?

Concerns about the decline of cinema experience

What is a characteristic of traditional media?

It typically requires more financial resources to produce

It can be created by anyone easily

It is always free for consumers

1. Traditional Media - R093: Creative iMedia in the Media Industry

Reading Passage: The Anatomy of a Kill Chain In the lexicon of modern warfare, the term "kill chain" describes the end-to-end process of a military attack, from the initial identification of a target to its eventual destruction and the subsequent evaluation of the strike's effectiveness. Conceptually, the kill chain is a structural model used to understand and optimize the speed and precision of military operations. The fundamental principle of this model is that an attack functions as a sequence of interdependent stages; if any single link in the chain is broken, the entire operation fails. For strategic planners, this creates a dual objective: to accelerate one's own kill chain while simultaneously finding ways to disrupt the adversary's. Strategic Concept: The Kinetic Model (F2T2EA) The traditional military kill chain is often summarized by the acronym F2T2EA, representing a continuous cycle of find, fix, track, target, engage, and assess. The kinetic kill chain begins with Find, the reconnaissance phase where intelligence assets identify a potential target within a theater of operations. Once found, the process moves to Fix, which involves pinning down the target's specific location and ensuring it can be distinguished from friendly forces or non-combatants. Track follows, maintaining a persistent watch on the target's movements to prevent its escape. In the Target phase, commanders select the appropriate weapon system and verify the legality and strategic value of the strike. Engage is the kinetic moment—the actual deployment of ordnance against the objective. Finally, Assess involves battle damage assessment (BDA) to determine if the desired effects were achieved or if further engagement is required. This model emphasizes "compressing the sensor-to-shooter timeline," meaning the faster a military can move through these steps, the more lethal it becomes. The Evolution: The Cyber Kill Chain® As warfare expanded into the digital domain, Lockheed Martin adapted the kinetic model into the Cyber Kill Chain. This framework assists defenders in identifying and stopping Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs). Unlike a physical missile, a cyberattack often unfolds over weeks or months, but the sequential logic remains the same. The model consists of seven distinct stages: Stage Description of Attacker Activity 1. Reconnaissance The harvesting of information. Attackers research targets via social media, public records, and technical scanning to find vulnerabilities. 2. Weaponization Coupling a remote access trojan with an exploit into a deliverable payload (e.g., a malicious PDF or Microsoft Office document). 3. Delivery Transmission of the weapon to the target environment. Common vectors include email attachments, malicious websites, or USB drives. 4. Exploitation The weapon triggers. The code executes on the victim's system, typically by taking advantage of a software or operating system vulnerability. 5. Installation The attacker installs a persistent backdoor or malware on the victim's system, allowing them to maintain access even after a reboot. 6. Command & Control (C2) The compromised system opens a communication channel back to the attacker's server, allowing the intruder to give manual instructions. 7. Actions on Objective The final stage where the attacker achieves their goal, such as data exfiltration, encryption for ransom, or destruction of critical infrastructure. Strategic Implications for Defense The strategic value of the Cyber Kill Chain lies in its ability to provide a roadmap for "proactive defense." By understanding the sequence, security professionals can implement controls at every stage. For instance, robust email filtering can break the chain at the Delivery stage, while endpoint detection can stop the Installation phase. Crucially, the earlier a defender breaks the chain, the lower the cost of mitigation and the lower the risk of damage. If an attacker is stopped during Reconnaissance, they have gained nothing. If they are stopped during Actions on Objective, the damage may already be catastrophic. In both kinetic and cyber environments, the goal is the same: to create a "defensive depth" that makes the cost of a successful attack prohibitively high for the adversary.

Certainly, let's expand on each section in detail so you can learn more from the provided text: # Summary This text aims to explain various aspects related to technology, particularly focusing on a concept known as "Tech Disruption." It explores how technology affects different sectors, outlines the conditions for tech disruption, discusses the industrial revolutions, introduces the laws of disruption, and mentions factors influencing technology choices. ## Concept of Technology **Technology** encompasses a range of elements within organizations. It includes **expertise, equipment, and procedures** used to convert inputs, such as resources or raw materials, into outputs, which can be products or services. This involves various aspects, such as **product design, production techniques, quality assurance measures, human resource development, and management systems**. In essence, technology represents the tools and knowledge used to create and deliver goods or services effectively. ## What is Tech Disruption **Tech Disruption** refers to a phenomenon where smaller companies with limited resources successfully challenge well-established incumbent businesses. This disruption is primarily driven by **technology**, which acts as the catalyst, enabler, or even the sole reason behind the change. The significance of this concept lies in the fact that entrepreneurs must make careful and thoughtful decisions when it comes to adopting and investing in technology. **Why it's Important?** These decisions are crucial because they involve significant investments and will have a substantial impact on a company's ability to create, innovate, and operate its services in a sustainable and cost-effective manner. ## Four Main Impact **Tech Disruption** has four main impacts on businesses and industries: 1. **Shifting Customer Expectations**: As technology evolves, customer expectations change. Companies must adapt to meet these evolving demands to remain competitive. 2. **Enhanced Products Through Data**: Data-driven insights improve the productivity and efficiency of assets, leading to better products and services. 3. **New Partnerships and Collaboration**: Tech disruption encourages companies to form new partnerships and collaborations, recognizing the importance of working together to stay relevant. 4. **Transformation of Operating Models**: Traditional operating models are being transformed into digital models, where technology plays a central role in how businesses operate and deliver value. ## The 11 Macro Sources of Distribution The **11 Macro Sources of Distribution** represent various factors that influence the distribution of resources and opportunities in society. These factors include: 1. **Wealth Distribution**: How wealth is distributed among individuals and entities. 2. **Education**: The availability and quality of education opportunities. 3. **Infrastructure**: The state of infrastructure, such as transportation and communication networks. 4. **Government**: Government policies and regulations that impact resource distribution. 5. **Geopolitics**: Geopolitical factors, such as international relations and conflicts. 6. **Economy**: Economic conditions and trends, including markets and financial systems. 7. **Public Health**: The state of healthcare and public health systems. 8. **Demographics**: Characteristics of the population, such as age and gender. 9. **Environment**: Environmental factors and sustainability concerns. 10. **Media and Telecommunications**: The role of media and communication technologies. 11. **Technology**: Technological advancements and their impact on society. ## When Does Tech Disruption Happen? **Tech Disruption** occurs when specific conditions are met: ### Technology Is Mature Enough - **Technology Accessibility**: Technology must be accessible to a wide range of people and organizations. - **Critical Mass**: It should have reached a critical mass where it can create significant impact. - **Affordability**: Technology must be affordable for businesses to adopt. ### Sector Is Ready For Change - **Tech Infrastructure**: The sector should have the necessary technological infrastructure in place. - **Policy Framework**: A conducive policy framework is essential to support and regulate the use of technology. - **Lack of Disruption**: If the sector is stagnant or facing issues, it becomes ripe for tech disruption. ### Sector + Technology + Timing + Product - **Mature Technology with an Unready Sector**: If technology is mature but the sector is not ready, it can lead to building the wrong product based on incorrect assumptions. - **Unmatured Technology with a Ready Sector**: Conversely, if technology is not matured but the sector is ready, it may take longer to develop the product. ## Ready for Industri 5.0? This section briefly outlines the five industrial revolutions: 1. **Industri 1.0 (1784)**: Marked by mass production assembly lines using electrical power. 2. **Industri 2.0 (1870)**: Introduced mechanization, steam, and water power. 3. **Industri 3.0 (1969)**: Characterized by automated production, computers, IT systems, and robotics. 4. **Industri 4.0 (Present)**: Involves smart factories, autonomous systems, IoT (Internet of Things), and machine learning. 5. **Industri 5.0 (Future)**: Envisions mass customization and cyber-physical cognitive systems. ## Three Laws of Disruption These laws explain the nature of disruption: 1. **Disruption Comes to All**: Disruption is a universal phenomenon; it affects all industries and businesses sooner or later. 2. **Product-Market Fit**: Disruption occurs due to changes in Product-Market Fit, which means aligning a product with its target market effectively. 3. **Methods to Change Product-Market Fit**: To address disruption, a company can change the product, the target market, or influence people's preferences regarding the product. ## The 40% Rule This rule provides a framework for evaluating the fit between a product and its market: - **Value Proposition**: The product should solve customers' problems effectively. - **Channels**: The product should be able to reach customers cost-effectively. - **Monetization**: Customers should be willing to pay for the product. ## PMF Framework: 5 Steps to Product/Market Fit The **PMF (Product/Market Fit) Framework** consists of five steps: 1. **Business Modeling**: Developing a business model that aligns with the market. 2. **Market Validation**: Confirming that there is demand for the product in the market. 3. **Customer Interviews**: Gaining insights from potential customers. 4. **Product Development and Customer Acquisition**: Creating the product and acquiring customers. 5. **Product Analytics**: Using data to determine if the product has achieved Product/Market Fit. ## Factors Determining the Choice of Technology Several factors influence the choice of technology: 1. **Government Policy**: Government regulations and policies can encourage or restrict the adoption of specific technologies. 2. **Available Resources**: The resources, both financial and human, impact the adoption of technology. 3. **Technological Capability**: The organization's technological capabilities influence the choice of technology. 4. **Existing Technological Level**: The current technological state of the industry or organization plays a role. 5. **Institutional Arrangement**: Organizational structures and arrangements affect technology choices. ## Conclusion In conclusion, the text emphasizes the critical role of technology in driving change and disruption in various industries. It highlights the need for informed decision-making when it comes to technology investments, as well as the conditions necessary for tech disruption to occur. Understanding the historical context of industrial revolutions, the laws of disruption, and the factors influencing technology choices is essential in today's fast-paced and tech-driven business environment. Embracing technology disruption is crucial for transforming business models and adapting to evolving market dynamics.

To the Lakota, and other indigenous people on North America's Great Plains, the bison was an essential part of their culture ( expressed in the quote on the previous page). The bison provided meat for nutrition, a hide for clothing and shelter, bones for tools, and fat for soap. The bison was also central to their religious beliefs. So, when European settlers hunted the bison nearly to extinction, Lakota culture suffered. Culture is central to a society and the identity of its people, as well as its continued existence. Therefore, geographers study culture as a way to understand similarities and differences among societies across the world, and in some cases, to help preserve these societies. Analyzing Culture All of a group's learned behaviors, actions, beliefs, and objects are a part of culture. It is a visible force seen in a group's actions, possessions, and influence on the landscape. For example, in a large city you can see people working in offices, factories, and stores, and living in high-rise apartments or suburban homes. You might observe them attending movies, concerts, or sporting events. Culture is also an invisible force guiding people through shared belief systems, customs, and traditions. Culture is learned, in that it develops through experiences, and not merely transmitted through genetics. For example, many people in the United States have developed a strong sense of competitiveness in school and business, and believe that hard work is a key to success. These types of elements, visible and invisible, are cultural traits. A series of interrelated traits make up a cultural complex, such as the process of steps and acceptable behaviors related to greeting a person in different cultures. A single cultural artifact, such as an automobile, may represent many different values, beliefs, behaviors and traditions and be representative of a cultural complex. Since culture is learned there are many ways that one generation passes its culture to the next. Children and adults learn traits three ways: • imitation, as when learning a language by repeating sounds or behaviors from a person or television • informal instruction, as when a parent reminds a child to say "please" • formal instruction, as when students learn history in school 132 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION CULTURAL COMPLEX OF THE AUTOMOBILE The automobile provides much more than just transportation, as it reflects many values that are central to American culture. Origins of Culture The area in which a unique culture or a specific trait develops is a culture hearth. Classical Greece was a culture hearth for democracy more than 2,000 years ago. New York City was a culture hearth for rap music in the 1970s. Geographers study how cultures develop in hearths and diffuse-or spread-to other places. Geographers also study taboos, behaviors heavily discouraged by a culture. For example, many cultures have taboos against eating certain foods, such as pork or insects. What is considered taboo changes over time. In the United States, marriages between Protestants and Catholics were once taboo, but they are not widely opposed now. Traditional, Folk, and Indigenous Cultures With the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, modern transportation and communication connected people as never before and led to extensive cultural mixing, especially as cities have grown. The world prior to this time was very different; however, remnants of the past are still evident in our modern cultures. Traditional, folk, and indigenous cultures share some important characteristics and are often grouped together, but they do have some subtle differences. Traditional Culture Recently, the meanings of traditional, folk, and indigenous culture have begun to merge, causing geographers to debate when each should be used. Increasingly, the term traditional culture is used to encompass all three cultural designations. All three types share the function of passing down long-held beliefs, values, and practices and are generally resistant to rapid changes in their culture. Folk Culture The beliefs and practices of small, homogenous groups of people, often living in rural areas that are relatively isolated and slow to change, are known as folk cultures. Like all cultures, they demonstrate the diverse ways that people have adapted to a physical environment. For example, people around the world learned to make shelters out of available resources, whether 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 133 it was snow or mud bricks or wood. However, people used similar resources such as wood differently. In Scandinavia, people used trees to build cabins. In the American Midwest, people processed trees into boards, built a frame, and attached the boards to it. Many traits of folk culture continue today. Corn was first grown in Mexico around 10,000 years ago, and it is still grown there today. While many elements of folk culture exist side by side with modern culture, there are people whose societies have changed little, if at all, from long ago. These people practice traditional cultures, those which have not been affected by modern technology or influences. They often live in remote regions, such as some small tribes in the Amazon rainforest, and have scant knowledge of the outside world. As the lines continue blurring between cultural designations, the Amish of Pennsylvania are often referenced as both folk and traditional culture. Indigenous Culture When members of an ethnic group reside in their ancestral lands, and typically possess unique cultural traits, such as speaking their own exclusive language, they are considered an indigenous culture. Some indigenous peoples have been displaced from their native lands, but still practice their indigenous culture. Native Americans in the United States, such as the Navajo, have kept indigenous cultural practices. First Nations of Canada, such as the Inuit, have also retained their indigenous culture. Globalization and Popular Culture As a result of the Industrial Revolution, improvements in transportation and communication have shortened the time required for movement, trade, or other forms of interaction between two places. This development, known as space-time compression (see Topics 1.4 and 3.6), has accelerated culture change around the world. In 1817, a freight shipment from Cincinnati needed 52 days to reach New York City. By 1850, because of canals and railroads, it took half that long. And by 1852, it took only 7 days. Today, an airplane flight takes only a few hours, and digital information takes seconds or less. Similar change has occurred on the global scale. People travel freely across the world in a matter of hours, and communication has advanced to a point where people share information instantaneously across the globe. The increased global interaction has had a profound impact on cultures, from spreading English across the world to instant sharing of news, events and music. Globalization specifically refers to the increased integration of the world economy since the 1970s. The process of intensified interaction among peoples, governments, and companies of different countries around the globe has had profound impacts on culture. The culture of the United States is intertwined with globalization. Through the influence of its corporations, Hollywood movies, and government, the United States exerts widespread influence in other countries. But other countries also shape American culture. For example, in 2019, the National Basketball Association included players from 38 countries or territories. When cultural traits- such as clothing, music, movies, and types of 134 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP. EDITION businesses-spread quickly over a large area and are adopted by various groups, they become part of popular culture. Elements of popular culture often begin in urban areas and diffuse quickly through globalization processes such as the media and Internet. These elements can quickly be adopted worldwide, making them part of global culture. People around the world follow European soccer, Indian Bollywood movies, and Japanese animation known as anime. With people in many nations wearing similar clothes, listening to similar music, and eating similar food, popular cultural traits often promote uniformity in beliefs, values, and the cultural landscape across many places The cultural landscape, also known as the built environment (see Topic 3.2), is the modification of the environment by a group and is a visible reflection of that group's cultural beliefs and values. Traditional Culture to Popular Culture Popular culture emphasizes trying what is new rather than preserving what is traditional. Many people, especially older generations or those who follow a folk culture, openly resist the adoption of popular cultural traits. They do this by preserving traditional languages, religions, values, and foods. While older generations often resist the adoption of popular culture, they seldom are successful in keeping their traditional cultures from changing, especially among the young people of their society. One clash between popular and traditional culture is occurring in Brazil. As the population expands to the interior of the rain forest, many indigenous cultures, like the Yanamamo tribe, have more contact with outside groups. Remaining isolated by the forest is becoming increasingly difficult as many young people from the indigenous cultures become exposed to popular culture and begin to integrate into the larger Brazilian society. As the young people leave their communities, they are more likely to accept popular culture at the expense of their indigenous cultural heritage, which threatens the very existence of their folk culture. Traditional culture typically exhibits horizontal diversity, meaning each traditional culture has its own customs and language that makes it distinct from other culture groups. Yet, people people within each group are usually homogeneous, or very similar to each other. By contrast, popular culture typically exhibits vertical diversity, meaning that modern urban societies are usually heterogeneous, or exhibiting differences, within the society and usually contain numerous multiethnic neighborhoods. However, on a global scale popular cultures are relatively similar with the same type of malls, shops, fast food, and clothing. Urban global culture centers are not identical, yet, global cities often do not have as much horizontal diversity across space as folk cultures. 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 135 COMPARING TRADITIONAL AND POPULAR CULTURE Trait Traditional Culture Popular or Global Culture Society • Rural and isolated location • Urban and connected location • Homogeneous and • Diverse and multiethnic indigenous population population • Most people speak an • Many people speak a global indigenous or ethnic local language such as English or language Arabic • Horizontal diversity • Vertical diversity Social • Emphasis on community and • Emphasis on individualism and Structure conformity making choices • Families live close to each • Dispersed families other • Weakly defined gender roles • Well-defined gender roles Diffusion • Relatively slow and limited • Relatively rapid and extensive • Primarily through relocation • Often hierarchical • Oral traditions and stories • Social media and mass media Buildings and • Materials produced locally, • Materials produced in distant Housing such as stone or grass factories, such as steel or glass • Built by community or owner • Built by a business • Similar style for community • Variety of architectural styles • Different between cultures • Similar between cities • Traditional architecture • Postmodern / contemporary architecture Food • Locally produced • Often imported • Choices limited by tradition • Wide range of choice • Prepared by the family or • Purchased in restaurants community Spatial Focus • Local and regional • National and global Artifacts, Mentifacts, and Sociofacts Whether a cultural attribute is considered traditional, folk, indigenous, or popular in nature, it is valuable to differentiate between elements of culture that can be seen and those that can not. There are artifacts that comprise the material culture, which consists of tangible things, or those that can be experienced by the senses. Art, clothing, food, music, sports, and housing types are all tangible elements of culture. Another element of the study of artifacts is understanding the techniques to use or build a specific artifact. Artifacts can be unique to a particular culture, or can be shared. For example, people of all cultures need to communicate through language, yet there are many groups that possess languages unique to their culture. The ability to read, write and understand the English language is an artifact of importance for much of popular global culture. 136 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION Mentifacts comprise a group's nonmaterial culture and consist ofintangible concepts, or those not having a physical presence. Beliefs, values, practices, and aesthetics (pleasing in appearance) determine what a cultural group views as acceptable and desirable. Mentifacts can also be unique or shared. People of many cultures possess an belief in one or many deities, and often the deities are unique to that culture. The belief in a god is a mentifact-the religious building or symbols are artifacts. Cultural groups also possess sociofacts, which are the ways people organize their society and relate to one another. Taken altogether, people tend to see the whole of their culture as greater than the sum of its individual parts. Sociofacts are embodied through families, governments, sports teams, religious organizations, education systems, and other social constructs. As with artifacts and mentifacts, sociofacts may also be unique or similar to other societies. Families are the foundations of most societies, yet what constitutes the structure of a family may vary widely between cultural groups. For example, Western cultures tend to view the nuclear family, consisting of the parents and their children as the basic family unit. By contrast, in many Western African cultures the norm is the extended family, consisting of several generations and other family members such as cousins living under one roof.

WHAT DOES THE WORLD GAIN WHEN WE PROTECT TIGERS? Tigers are one of the world’s most recognized animals. Throughout history they can be seen in cultural traditions across Asia, as well as in brand images and logos the world over. But while they might be omnipresent across our cultural landscape, their actual existence in the wild has been dramatically reduced to only a few pockets of their historical range. Wild tigers are now found in just 10 countries, their historical range shrunk by over 95%.er / WWF-US If tigers completely disappeared, we’d be losing so much more than an iconic species… Protecting water sources for millions of people Tiger habitats overlap nine of Asia’s most important watersheds which supply water to more than 800 million people. Protecting these tiger forests is the most cost-effective way to prevent droughts, reduce flooding, and limit the impacts of climate change. Protected Areas are proven to reduce deforestation and across Asia tigers are the driving force behind creating and effectively managing protected areas. For example, India recently declared its 51st Tiger Reserve, Srivilliputhur Megamalai, in southern India and this new protected area will safeguard more than 1,000km2 of key river habitat. Lose tigers, and lose entire forests Here in Cambodia, where I photographed the country’s last wild tiger in November 2007, tiger spirits were used by indigenous communities to help regulate the management of forests and wildlife. Harvesting of valuable plants was only permitted in certain times of the year and only after the tiger spirits had been appeased. Failure to adhere would result in wild tigers stalking you in the forest. However, with the extinction of the tiger the spirits have vanished, and the forests become an open free-for-all.aysia / Lau Ching Fong Protecting tigers also protects a multitude of other species Tiger-protected areas save much of Asia’s amazing wildlife. Take, for example, India’s Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam where tiger populations are increasing. In addition to tigers the grasslands and forests of Manas Tiger Reserve support the only viable global population of the world’s smallest, and rarest pig –pygmy hog – and, my personal favorite, the Bengal florican. This critically endangered gamebird, which I studied for my doctorate, finds a mate with an elaborate display involving males shooting themselves into the sky before plummeting down kicking their legs as if riding a bicycle. Without tigers, these and many more species would not be as well protected. A cultural and spiritual icon for millions There are plenty of examples of mythical animals, such as the unicorn, and extinct creatures, like the dodo and dinosaurs, which remain part of international consciousness. Tigers are a global phenomenon, but unless conservation is successful, they will only be known in zoos or in cultural media. A world without tigers would be economically and spiritually a much poorer place. Let us continue focusing our efforts towards doubling wild tigers and ensuring that this species does not become a vanished cultural icon.

La classificazione dei beni di consumo La scelta della strategia migliore per un dato prodotto dipende dalle caratteristiche del prodotto stesso e dall'obiettivo perseguito dall'impresa nell'ambiente competitivo in cui opera, si stabilisce una distinzione fra 4 sottogruppi: 1) I prodotti d'acquisto corrente (convenience good) sono i beni che il consumatore acquista con il minimo sforzo possibile, di frequente e in piccole quantità, adottando un comportamento d'acquisto abitudinario. Questa categoria può essere suddivisa in: prodotti di prima necessità: sono acquistati regolarmente e includono la maggior parte dei prodotti alimentari, l'acquisto è facilitato dalla fedeltà alla marca e dalla pubblicità ripetitiva. prodotti d'impulso: vengono acquistati senza alcuna premeditazione (patatine);devono essere disponibili in più negozi; la confezione e gli espositori sono importanti per la loro vendita. prodotti d'urgenza: vengono acquistati per soddisfare un bisogno inaspettato e urgente, vanno acquistati nel momento del bisogno quindi devono essere disponibili in diversi tipi di punti vendita (cerotti, disinfettanti ecc.); per questi prodotti, l'impresa non ha scelta: è necessaria la massima copertura del mercato perché, se il cliente non trova il prodotto o la marca desiderata nel momento e nel luogo in cui vuole acquistarla, sceglierà un'altra marca. 2) I prodotti di acquisto ragionato (shopping good) sono prodotti per i qualí si percepisce un livello elevato di rischio, per cui i consumatori investono tempo e impegno per confrontare le caratteristiche di prodotti alternativi, in base a criteri come la qualità, il prezzo, lo stile ecc. es. mobili, abiti... prodotti a prezzo elevato e a bassa frequenza d'acquisto. In questi casi, i clienti potenziali si recano in vari punti vendita prima di decidere l'acquisto e il personale di vendita esercita un'influenza notevole sulla decisione finale. Per questi prodotti è indicata la distribuzione selettiva, in quanto serve la collaborazione del dettagliante e l'ubicazione adeguata del punto vendita. 3) I prodotti esclusivi (specialty good) sono prodotti con caratteristiche uniche; all'acquisto di tali beni il consumatore è pronto a dedicare molti sforzi, si tratta di marche di prodotti di lusso es. auto, alta moda ecc. Per questi prodotti, i clienti non procedono a confronti tra le marche: cercano il punto vendita dove è disponibile il prodotto o la marca desiderata. Il fattore determinante è la fedeltà al prodotto o alla marca, per il produttore di un bene specifico, la distribuzione esclusiva rappresenta la migliore soluzione. 4) I prodotti non ricercati sono quelli che i clienti non conoscono, o quelli che sono noti ma non c'è interesse spontaneo, rientrano, per esempio, apparecchiature per il controllo della temperatura o assicurazioni sulla vita. Questi prodotti non ricercati richiedono sforzi di vendita notevoli e la collaborazione dell'intermediario è indispensabile. 16.6 Le politiche di comunicazione nella rete distributiva Per conseguire gli obiettivi di marketing dell'impresa, è necessaria la collaborazione dei distributori. Per ottenere tale impegno da parte degli intermediari, l'impresa può scegliere 2 politichecomunicative: Le politiche push Consiste nel concentrare gli sforzi di comunicazione e di promozione sugli intermediari, in modo da stimolarli a collaborare con l'azienda, inserire il prodotto nei loro assortimenti, immagazzinarlo in quantità consistenti e garantirgli lo spazio di vendita adeguato. L'obiettivo è quello di sollecitare la collaborazione volontaria del distributore che, a seconda degli incentivi e delle condizioni di vendita che gli vengono proposti (margini elevati, sconti sulle quantità, pubblicità nel punto vendita, budget promozionali, distribuzioni gratuite), tenderà a privilegiare il nostro prodotto, quindi è indispensabile un programma di incentivi. Il rischio di questa strategia è che potrebbe rendere l'impresa dipendente dall'intermediario, che ne controlla l'accesso al mercato. Le politiche pull Consiste nel tagliare fuori gli intermediari e cercare di costruire la domanda dell'impresa rivolgendosi direttamente ai potenziali consumatori nel segmento target. L'obiettivo comunicativo è quello di creare una forte domanda da parte del consumatore finale e di sviluppare la fedeltà alla marca in modo che il distributore sia costretto a inserirla nel proprio assortimento, per soddisfare le richieste del consumatore. Sono necessarie spese sulla comunicazione in pubblicità sui media, promozioni ai consumatori e altri mezzi di mkt diretto, se si ha successo, il produttore avrà il potere d'influenzare i partecipanti al canale distributivo e di indurli a prendere in carico la marca.. Procter & Gamble adotta una politica pull per lanciare i nuovi prodotti. Però questa politica richiede ingenti risorse finanziarie per coprire i costi delle campagne pubblicitarie, si tratta di costi fissi mentre adottando una politica push, i costi sono proporzionali ai volumi di vendita e diventano più sostenibili, in particolare per le piccole imprese. Una politica pull va considerata un investimento a lungo termine: l'obiettivo dell'impresa è quello di creare un capitale di reputazione, il cosiddetto "brand equity". In pratica le due politiche di comunicazione sono utilizzate insieme. 16.7 L'analisi dei costi di distribuzione I costi di distribuzione sono misurati dalla differenza tra il prezzo unitario di vendita pagato dal consumatore finale e il prezzo pagato al produttore dal primo acquirente. Il margine di distribuzione s'identifica dunque con il concetto di valore aggiunto del canale distributivo. Laddove più intermediari intervengono nel processo distributivo, il margine di distribuzione è costituito dalla somma dei margini del diversi Intermediari. I margini di distribuzione Si esprime in termini percentuali, si calcola sia in rapporto al costo d'acquisto (C), sia in rapporto al prezzo di vendita (P). Si parla di margine di distribuzione (D) come di mark-up (o "ricarico") e di"sconto". Abbiamo diverse formule di calcolo: Costi di distribuzione (CD) ➨ CD = Pcf - Ppa Pcf = prezzo pagato dal consumatore finale Ppa = prezzo pagato al produttore dal primo acquirente Margine di distribuzione (MD) = volume d’affari del canale (VA) MD = ∑ md n md = Pv - Pa n = margini dei diversi intermediari In un sistema di distribuzione indiretto, il margine di distribuzione è uguale alla somma dei margini dei distributori IL MARGINE DEL DISTRIBUTORE (D) = prezzo di vendita - costo d'acquisto = D = P - C IL MARGINE DI DISTRIBUZIONE IN PERCENTUALE sul prezzo di vendita (sconto): D* = P-C / P sul costo di acquisto (mark-up): D° = P-C / C REGOLE DI EQUIVALENZA D*= D° /1 + D° D° = D* /1 - D* Calcolo del prezzo di vendita al cliente Costo di acquisto = 90€; Sconto = 25% Prezzo di vendita al dettaglio = 90€/ (1 - 0,25) = 90€/0,75 = 120€ I margini di distribuzione sono espressi in relazione al prezzo di vendita, ma la prassi può variare fra un settore e l'altro e fra un'impresa e l'altra, inoltre dipende dalla posizione occupata dall'intermediario nella rete e remunera la funzione o le funzioni esercitate. In alcuni casi, l'intermediario beneficia di più margini. Confronto tra prezzo di listino, di fattura e finale I margini di distribuzione costituiscono solo una parte del margine totale, bisogna distinguere tra; ➤prezzo di listino è il prezzo ufficiale, pubblicato nel tariffario o nel listino dell'azienda. ➤prezzo di fattura è il prezzo di listino al netto delle deduzioni "in fattura" che andrebbero conteggiate in aggiunta allo sconto standard per il distributore, per esempio, di sconti speciali al distributore, sconti all'utente finale e promozioni in fattura. ➤prezzo finale è il prezzo di fattura senza le deduzioni "aggiunte fuori fattura", come lo sconto per i pagamenti in contanti, i costi del conto clienti, le indennità, i rimborsi, i programmi promozionali fuori fattura e le spese di spedizione, inoltre confezioni speciali o supporto tecnico.. sottraendo dal prezzo finale il costo di questi servizi si ottiene il margine finale, ossia la misura della redditività del prodotto. Confronto fra costi di distribuzione Il margine di distribuzione remunera le funzioni e i compiti della distribuzione assunti dagli intermediari. Nel canale indiretto lungo, la maggior parte dei compiti fisici di distribuzione (stoccaggio e trasporto) sono svolti dai grossisti e i costi sono proporzionali al volume d'affari del fabbricante e coperti dal margine del grossista e del distributore. Il produttore deve mantenere un servizio commerciale minimo, con spese fisse a suo carico ridotte però l'impresa esercita un controllo scarso sull'organizzazione di vendita. Nel canale indiretto breve, la quota di spese fisse diventa preponderante rispetto al costo totale di distribuzione; il fabbricante deve sostenere le spese della distribuzione fisica, organizzare una rete di magazzini e un'amministrazione delle vendite, sugli oneri finanziari prodotti dalla gestione delle scorte e del conto vendita della clientela, come pure la funzione di vendita. L'adozione di questo canale implica per il fabbricante, un rischio finanziario maggiore, però l'impresa è in grado di esercitare un miglior controllo sulla propria organizzazione commerciale, essendo in contatto diretto con la domanda finale. L'indice di redditività di ciascuno di essi si calcolerà nel modo seguente: R = volume d'affari - costi di distribuzione /costi di distribuzione dove R rappresenta una valutazione dell'indice di redditività previsto, tenendo conto dell'insieme dei costi che ogni canale comporta. 16.8 L'impatto di internet sulle decisioni di distribuzione Internet sta migliorando l'efficienza dei mercati, creando situazioni prossime alla concorrenza pura o perfetta, l'impresa che controlla l'accesso dei prodotti sul mercato possiede un importante vantaggio competitivo. Nell'e-business, invece di vendere ciò che produce, l'impresa virtuale vende ciò che può offrire, non importa chi provvederà al processo di fabbricazione dei prodotti. La tentazione di disintermediazione Internet potrebbe consentire alle imprese di trattare direttamente con il cliente finale, scavalcando le reti di distribuzione esistenti e riducendo i costi di transazione, si definisce disintermediazione. Prima di considerare la disintermediazione, è utile verificare se ciascuna applicazione online "completa" o "sostituisce" le operazioni offline, in molti casi, la soluzione migliore è data da una combinazione delle due, promuovendo in tal modo la complementarietà. Andare contemporaneamente online e offline? Offrendo gli stessi prodotti agli stessi clienti, con la stessa marca contemporaneamente online e offline, si possono generare dei forti conflitti di canale, possono essere: Conflitti interni ⟹ quelli tra due o più canali di commercializzazione impiegati dall'impresa; esistono 4 tipi di conflitti interni: 1. Cannibalizzazione tra canali: la creazione di un nuovo canale di vendita può determinare una ridistribuzione del volume complessivo di vendite tra i canali, che si traduce in una cannibalizzazione dei canali esistenti, a favore di quelli nuovi. 2. Sottoutilizzazione delle infrastrutture fisiche: i canali di vendita al dettaglio necessitano di Investimenti in beni materiali come negozi, uffici... L'ottimizzazione del numero, delle dimensioni e dell'utilizzazione di queste risorse è importante, se volumi consistenti di vendite vengono spostati online, l'equilibrio potrebbe saltare, con un impatto negativo sui costi totali. 3. Discriminazione di prezzo tra I canali: l'impresa che utilizza anche un canale di distribuzione online si troverà a competere con imprese che operano esclusivamente su Web e che hanno costi e prezzi più bassi, ciò la spingerà a ridurre i prezzi online, causando possibili problemi con i propri clienti tradizionali, i quali potrebbero ritenere di pagare troppo offline. 4. Desincronizzazione dei canali: i clienti non distinguono tra i canali di vendita per la stessa marca, ma selezionano semplicemente il canale più conveniente, aspettandosi un certo grado di integrazione tra l'online e l'offline. Conflitti esterni ⟹ quando operatori terzi indipendenti sono coinvolti nella rete distributiva. 1. Eliminare i dettaglianti tradizionali: nel momento in cui i canali online tolgono volume d'affari ai canali tradizionali, questi ultimi possono ritirare il loro supporto ai prodotti dell'azienda e passare alla concorrenza. 2. Perdere Il controllo del canale: I produttori cercano di controllare i canali che utilizzano, impostando delle quote di vendita per area o per regione e fornendo linee guida rigorose in materia di presentazione e promozione del prodotto, è difficile mantenere lo stesso controllo sul canali online. 3. Spostamento del valore a monte: la fornitura di servizi e di informazioni direttamente da parte dei produttori riduce il ruolo e il valore aggiunto dei rivenditori, le cui funzioni sono limitate alle attività di distribuzione fisica, che sono peraltro le più costose. Esistono delle opzioni per conciliare i canali online e non, che riducono i potenziali conflitti: • inserire sul sito web dell'impresa una presentazione e un catalogo di prodotti senza listino prezzi, in modo, tale che i distributori percepiscono il sito come supporto promozionale; • usare nel sito web lo stesso prezzo di mercato, ma aggiungere le spese di consegna, mantenendo attraente l'offerta del distributore tradizionale; • vendere sul sito web, ma riconoscendo una provvigione ai distributori situati nella zona geografica in cui il prodotto è venduto; • adottare la stessa politica di prezzo dei distributori.

Related quizzes

Related quizzes