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1.7.05
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1.7.05 - 1.7.07 Written sentences1.7.01-1.7.05In this video we take a look at the 0:02 fetch to code 0:03 execute cycle including its effect on 0:06 the various registers we've previously 0:12 [Music] 0:14 discussed a computer is defined Definition 0:17 as an electronic device that takes an 0:20 input 0:22 processes data 0:25 and delivers output 0:29 in this simple example you can see we're 0:31 taking the input 5 0:35 we're multiplying it by 2 that's our 0:37 process 0:39 and we're outputting 10. 0:44 but this could be way more complex for 0:46 example of a game console 0:48 the input could be the buttons you press 0:50 on a controller 0:53 the processes would then be carried out 0:55 by the console itself 0:59 and the output would be some form of 1:01 update to a monitor 1:02 and sound out for a speaker possibly 1:04 vibration feedback through the 1:06 controller 1:10 to process data a computer follows a set 1:13 of instructions 1:14 known as a computer program 1:18 if we take the lid off a typical desktop 1:20 computer we can identify 1:22 two critical components the memory 1:26 that stores the program and the central 1:29 processing unit or processor 1:31 which is under this large fan and 1:33 carries out the instructions 1:37 a computer carries out its function by 1:40 fetching 1:41 instructions decoding them and then 1:43 executing them 1:44 in a continuous repetitive cycle 1:46 billions of times a second 1:48 let's look at each of these stages in a 1:50 little more detail Fetch 1:53 so let's start with the fetch stage the 1:55 very first thing that happens 1:57 is the program counter is checked as it 2:00 holds the address 2:01 of the next instruction to be executed 2:07 the address stored is then copied into 2:09 the memory address register 2:14 the address is then sent along the 2:16 address bus to main memory 2:18 where it waits to receive a signal from 2:21 the control 2:22 bus so it knows what to do 2:27 as we want to read the data that's 2:29 stored in memory address 2:30 0 0 0 0 the control unit sends 2:34 a read signal along the control bus to 2:36 main memory 2:41 now main memory knows the data needs to 2:44 be read 2:45 the content stored in memory address 000 2:49 can be sent along the data bus to the 2:51 memory data register 2:56 now as we're currently in the process of 2:58 fetching an instruction 3:00 the data received by the memory data 3:03 register gets copied 3:04 into the current instruction register 3:11 the instruction effectively has now been 3:14 fetched from memory 3:16 just before we proceed to the decode 3:18 phase we now 3:19 increment the program counter so that 3:22 the address it contains 3:24 points to the address of the next 3:26 instruction which will need to be 3:30 executed 3:32 the instruction now being held in the 3:33 current instruction register 3:35 is ready to be decoded 3:39 now as we mentioned in the previous 3:41 video the instruction is made up of two 3:43 parts 3:44 we have the op code that's what it is we 3:47 need to do 3:50 and we have the operand what are we 3:53 going to do it to 3:55 now the operand could contain the actual 3:57 data 3:58 or indeed it could contain an address of 4:01 where the data is to be found 4:06 by decoding this instruction we can see 4:08 the operation we need 4:10 is a load operation so we need to load 4:14 the contents of memory location0101 4:18 into the cpus accumulator 4:25 in the exam a simple model will be used 4:27 to describe the 4:29 structure of any given instruction 4:32 you're not going to be expected to 4:34 define how an opcode is made up 4:36 but simply to interpret opcodes in the 4:39 given context of an exam 4:40 question in the example here 4:44 you can see there's a total of 16 4:46 different opcodes available 4:48 and this is because we're using four 4:50 bits for our representation 4:56 so now we've fetched the instruction and 4:59 we've decoded it so we know what we need 5:00 to do 5:01 we're finally ready to execute it 5:05 so we now send address 0101 5:08 to the memory dress register 5:13 now we're in the memory address register 5:15 we can finally send the address 5:18 down the address bus to main memory 5:24 this time we want to read the data 5:26 that's stored in memory 5:28 and so the control unit again sends a 5:30 read signal along the control bus 5:36 so main memories now receive an address 5:38 and a read signal 5:40 so the content stored at memory location 5:43 0101 5:44 can now be sent along the data bus back 5:46 to the cpu 5:47 and into the memory data register 5:54 finally the contents of the memory data 5:56 register are copied to the accumulator 5:59 and this is one of a number of general 6:00 purpose registers found in the cpu 6:04 this first instruction is now complete Branching 6:11 so what does this program actually do 6:14 you should be able to work it through 6:16 carefully and figure it out 6:19 we're now pointing instructions zero 6:21 zero zero one in the program counter 6:23 and we're ready to fetch the second 6:25 instruction 6:27 at the end of this video we're gonna 6:29 provide you with the answer 6:34 so let's talk a second about programs 6:37 that branch 6:40 on the left here we have a very simple 6:42 piece of pseudo code 6:44 line zero says first execute this line 6:46 of code 6:47 line 1 now execute this line and then 6:50 line 2 says 6:52 if the age is greater than 18 then 6:56 we're going to execute lines 3 and 4 6:58 otherwise 6:59 we're going to execute lines six and 7:02 seven 7:03 so this program doesn't necessarily 7:05 follow strictly in sequence from line 7:07 zero through to seven there's a chance 7:10 here the program may branch and jump 7:14 around 7:16 so we're going to pretend that this 7:17 program has been loaded into memory 7:20 each line of code on the left here has 7:23 ended up 7:24 as a location in memory now this is not 7:27 strictly how this would happen in this 7:28 one-to-one way 7:29 but for the purpose of example it's 7:31 absolutely fine 7:35 so the program counter starts by 7:37 pointing to memory address zero 7:39 and we fetch the first instruction 7:41 decode it and execute it 7:44 it then updates and tells us the next 7:47 instruction 7:48 is zero zero zero one because remember 7:50 the program counter is being incremented 7:52 so we fetch it decode it and we execute 7:55 line one of our program 7:59 we then fetch line two which in binary 8:01 is one 8:02 zero 8:06 now at this point depending on what 8:10 happens during the execution 8:11 of line two the program may be required 8:15 to fetch line three from memory or 8:18 line five from memory 8:25 so let's look at how this actually works 8:27 because we've said the program counter 8:28 simply gets incremented 8:31 well in the current instruction register 8:33 we have an instruction with the op code 8:36 0 1 1 0. 8:41 now when we look this up in the decode 8:43 unit we discover that this 8:45 code means branch always 8:51 this replaces the value held in the 8:54 program counter 8:56 with the contents of the operand that's 8:58 the second part of the instruction 9:01 from the current instruction register so 9:03 this case 9:04 one zero zero one 9:09 now when the next fetch cycle begins the 9:12 program counter is obviously checked 9:14 and as its contents have been previously 9:16 updated to a new memory location 9:19 and not simply incremented the program 9:22 effectively is able to jump 9:24 around memory 9:28 so having watched this video you should 9:30 be able to answer the following key 9:32 question 9:33 how does a cpu work 9:39 okay so let's um answer the question we 9:41 posed 9:42 earlier what did that program actually 9:48 do 9:50 so this is the first fetch to code 9:53 execute cycle 9:55 and this is the one that we ran through 9:57 in detail earlier 9:58 it effectively loaded the contents of 10:01 the memory 10:02 stored at location location0101 10:05 into the accumulator in other words 10:08 the dna number 3 is moved 10:11 from memory into the cpu 10:18 we then proceed onto the second fetch 10:20 decode execute cycle 10:23 now this one adds the contents of memory 10:27 located at 0 1 1 0 10:30 to the current contents of the 10:32 accumulator 10:34 so in other words the dna number one 10:38 because that's what's stored at address 10:40 zero one one zero 10:43 is added to the number three that was in 10:45 the accumulator 10:46 the results are stored back over the 10:48 accumulator 10:49 so effectively we've done three plus one 10:53 equals four 10:58 the third fetch to code execute cycle 11:00 stores the contents which are in the 11:02 accumulator 11:03 into memory location zero one one one 11:07 and that's because the op code the first 11:09 part of this current instruction 11:10 zero zero one one is the command to 11:13 store when we look it up in the decoder 11:15 unit 11:16 so in other words the result of the 11:17 previous calculation three plus one 11:19 equals four 11:20 is now written back into main memory 11:28 the fourth fetch decode execute cycle 11:30 outputs the contents of the accumulator 11:33 remember they were copied into main 11:34 memory but they're still held in the 11:35 accumulator 11:37 so in this simple abstraction the number 11:40 four is now 11:41 output to the user so they can see the 11:43 result of the calculation 11:49 the fifth and final fetch code execute 11:51 cycle 11:52 brings a halt to the current program 11:58 so this very simple program which has 12:01 five 12:02 fetch decode execute cycles has 12:04 performed the calculation 12:06 three plus one is then stored the result 12:09 in main memory 12:10 and displayed the result four to the 12:12 user 12:13 and in a high-level language this may 12:15 look something very similar to the 12:17 following two lines of code 12:20 sum variable equals num1 plus num2 12:24 print sum to the user 12:27 so you can start to get an appreciation 12:29 here of how the high level code you 12:32 write actually ends up being fetched 12:34 decoded 12:35 and executed inside a processor 12:38 of course your processor is doing 12:40 billions and billions of these 12:42 operations a second 12:43 which when you think about it is really 12:45 very impressive 12:52 [Music] 13:03 you. make 10 questions for a standerd of a levelOf the 7 billion people on Earth roughly 0:02 6 billion own a cell phone which is 0:05 pretty shocking given that only 4 and2 0:07 billion have access to a working toilet 0:09 so how are these popular gadgets 0:11 changing your body and brain If you're 0:13 looking down at your phone right now 0:15 your spine angle is equivalent to that 0:17 of an 8-year-old child sitting on your 0:19 neck which is fairly significant 0:21 considering people spend an average of 0:23 4.7 hours a day looking at their phone 0:26 this combined with the length of time 0:28 spent in front of computers has led to 0:30 an increase in the prevalence of myopia 0:32 or nearsightedness in North America in 0:34 the 1970s about one quar of the 0:36 population had myopia where today nearly 0:39 half do and in some parts of Asia 80 to 0:41 90% of the population is now nearsighted 0:44 and it can be hard to put your phone 0:46 down take for example the game Candy 0:48 Crush as you play the game you achieve 0:50 small goals causing your brain to be 0:52 rewarded with little bursts of dopamine 0:54 and eventually you're rewarded in the 0:56 game with new content this novelty also 0:58 gives little bursts of dopamine and 1:00 together create what is known as a 1:01 compulsion Loop which just happens to be 1:04 the same Loop responsible for the 1:05 behaviors associated with nicotine or 1:07 cocaine our brains are hardwired to make 1:10 us novelty seeking and this is why apps 1:12 on our phones are designed to constantly 1:14 provide us with new content making them 1:16 hard to put down as a result 93% of 1:19 young people aged 18 to 29 report using 1:21 their smartphone as a tool to avoid 1:23 boredom as opposed to other activities 1:26 like reading a book or engaging with 1:27 people around them this has created a 1:29 new term nomophobia the fear or anxiety 1:32 of being without your phone we also see 1:35 a change in brain patterns Alpha rhythms 1:37 are commonly associated with wakeful 1:39 relaxation like when your mind wanders 1:41 off whereas gamma waves are associated 1:44 with conscious attentiveness and 1:46 experiments have shown that when a cell 1:47 phone is transmitting say during a phone 1:49 call the power of these Alpha Waves is 1:52 significantly boosted meaning phone 1:54 Transmissions can literally change the 1:56 way your brain functions your smartphone 1:58 can also disrupt your sleep the screen 2:00 emits a blue light which has been shown 2:02 to alter our circadian rhythms 2:03 diminishing the time spent in deep Sleep 2:06 which is linked to the development of 2:07 diabetes cancer and obesity Studies have 2:10 shown that people who read on their 2:11 smartphone at night have a harder time 2:13 falling asleep and produce less 2:15 melatonin a hormone responsible for the 2:17 regulation of sleep wake Cycles Harvard 2:20 medical school advises the last 2 to 3 2:22 hours before bed be technology free so 2:24 pick up a book before bed instead of 2:26 course smartphones also completely 2:28 change our ability to access information 2:30 most notably in poor and minority 2:32 populations 7% of Americans are entirely 2:35 dependent on smartphones for their 2:37 access to the internet a 2014 study 2:40 found that the majority of smartphone 2:41 owners use their phone for online 2:43 banking to look up medical information 2:45 and searching for jobs so while phones 2:47 are in no way exclusively bad and have 2:50 been part of a positive change in the 2:51 world there's no denying that they are 2:53 changing us but many successful people 2:56 have now decided to take smartphone 2:58 vacations in order to increase 3:00 productivity in our new ASAP thought 3:01 video we break down the top six reasons 3:04 you should take a smartphone vacation 3:06 and how it could benefit your life right 3:08 now and subscribe for more weekly 3:09 science videos7.018 Safe Injection Practices (Refer to 7.07 Safe Injection Policy) Environment of Care: Active participation with all identified projects to assess compliance with infection control standards. . Surveillance, Control, and Reporting includes: Baseline information about the frequency and type of nosocomial infections. Identification of patients and/or staff with communicable or potentially communicable infections. Patients identified with a communicable disease will be isolated from other patients in the facility or, if this is not possible, they will be transferred to a local hospital for care or rescheduled. Identification of clusters of microorganisms or significant deviations from endemic level. Reporting to committees and outside agencies, when required. Investigation of infections as needed. Immediate implementation of corrective and preventive measures that result in improvements. The Infection Control nurse or designated staff member will perform facility audits and report results to the QI committee and Board of Managers. EVALUATION Evaluation and improvement of the infection prevention and control activities are important steps in the Center’s efforts to control and prevent infection. Infection prevention and control practices should become a routine part of the care, treatment, or services the center provides to patients. Patients expect and deserve hygienic and safe care even if their contact with the Center does not extend beyond a single visit. Continuous review of the goals, activities, and outcomes of the Center’s initiative are therefore followed by improvement activities that are realistic in expectation and, above all, effective. Evaluation of the plan shall include but not be limited to: Evaluation of the infection prevention and control activities annually and whenever risks significantly change. The evaluation includes a review of the following: The infection prevention and control prioritized risks The infection prevention and control goals. Implementation of infection prevention and control Outcomes of infection prevention and control activities. Findings from the evaluation are communicated at least annually to the Quality Management Committee References: http://oneandonlycampaign.org/content/what-are-they-why-follow-them. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2004). Guidance for the Selection and Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in Healthcare Settings. Retrieved January 29, 2015 from www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/bbp/sharps.html. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2003). Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care Facilities 52(RR10);1-42. Retrieved January 29, 2015 from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5210a1.htm. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2002). Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings: Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. MMWR. 51(RR-16). Retrieved January 29, 2015 from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5116a1.htm. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2008). Sharps Safety Workbook. Retrieved April 24 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/sharpssafety/pdf/workbookcomplete.pdf. Guideline for Infection Control in Healthcare Personnnel available at: Guideline for Infection Control in Healthcare Personnel available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/InfectControl98.pdf Immunization of HealthCare Personnel, guidance available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/spec-grps/hcw.htm Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) Bloodborne Pathogens and Needlestick Prevention Standards available at: http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/bloodbornepathogens/index.html Sax H, et al. (2007). My five moments for hand hygiene: A user-centered design approach to understand, train, monitor and report hand hygiene. For the World Health Organization. J Hosp Infect 67(1):9–21. World Health Organization (WHO). (2005). World Alliance for Patient Safety. WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care. Retrieved January 29 , 2015 from http://www.who.int/patientsafety/events/05/HH_en.pdf.0:01 i pasticciotti presentano Federico II di 0:05 Sveia 0:07 Nel 0:09 1186 Costanza D'Alta Villa figlia del re 0:12 normno di Sicilia Ruggero II sposò ormai 0:16 trentenne Enrico VI di Svevia figlio 0:20 dell'imperatore Federico Barbarossa che 0:23 si servì di questo matrimonio per 0:26 stringere un'alleanza politica con la 0:28 monarchia siciliana 0:31 Purtroppo non fu un'unione felice sia 0:34 perché il marito aveva 10 anni in meno 0:37 della moglie sia perché lui non aveva un 0:40 bel carattere e pare che rinfacciasse 0:44 continuamente a costanza la sua età 0:47 avanzata temendo che ciò fosse causa di 0:50 sterilità 0:52 Alla morte di Federico Barbarossa nel 0:56 1190 Enrico VI ereditò dal padre il 1:00 titolo di imperatore del Sacro Romano 1:02 Impero ma era incapace di esercitare un 1:06 buon governo nei confronti dei sudditi 1:09 normanni che vivevano nel regno di 1:11 Sicilia portatogli in dote dalla moglie 1:14 Costanza 1:16 Così nel 1:18 1994 Enrico partì per una spedizione in 1:22 Sicilia senza la moglie al seguito e 1:25 fece in modo di essere incoronato re di 1:28 Sicilia il giorno di Natale nella 1:31 cattedrale di 1:33 Palermo Lo stesso giorno Costanza che 1:36 era in avanzato stato di gravidanza e 1:39 stava viaggiando in direzione di Palermo 1:42 per raggiungere il marito si rese conto 1:44 di essere prossima al 1:47 parto Se oggi nessuno più si meraviglia 1:50 della gravidanza di una quarantenne nel 1:52 Medioevo una gestazione a quell'età 1:55 sembrava una cosa praticamente 1:57 impossibile Pertanto si erano alimentate 2:01 voci malevoli sulla vera condizione di 2:04 costanza e neppure il marito pareva 2:07 realmente convinto della gravidanza 2:09 della moglie E dato che Costanza prima 2:12 di sposarsi era stata per un periodo in 2:16 monastero circolava addirittura la voce 2:19 che nel suo grembo ci fosse 2:21 l'anticristo che secondo una leggenda 2:24 medievale sarebbe nato dall'unione di 2:26 una vecchia monaca con un 2:29 frate Così Costanza decise di fermarsi 2:33 nella cittadina di Iesi e per fugare 2:36 ogni dubbio sulla sua gravidanza fece 2:39 allestire una tenda nella piazza 2:42 centrale della cittadina 2:44 marchigiana in modo da partorire al 2:47 cospetto di tutte le donne sposate del 2:50 paese Alcuni riferirono che il giorno 2:53 successivo al parto la regina lattò 2:56 pubblicamente il piccolo che poi fu 2:59 battezzato nella cattedrale di San 3:01 Ruffino di Assisi con il nome di 3:04 Federico 3:06 Ruggero Federico per indicare la 3:09 discendenza sveva quale nipote di 3:12 Federico 3:13 Barbarossa e Ruggero per sottolineare la 3:17 discendenza normanna dal primo re di 3:20 Sicilia Ruggero 3:23 d'Altavilla A soli 3 anni il piccolo 3:26 Federico rimase orfano e fu posto sotto 3:30 la tutela di Papa Innocenzo II da cui si 3:33 affrancò a 14 anni quando divenne prima 3:37 re di Sicilia e poi re di 3:41 Germania acquisendo il nome di Federico 3:44 II congiuntamente al titolo di 3:47 imperatore nel 1220 3:50 Ma Federico era più interessato 3:53 all'Italia che alla 3:54 Germania Così stabilì la sua corte in 3:57 Sicilia a 4:00 Palermo Federico II organizzò un regno 4:04 forte e 4:05 accentrato costruendo in tutta l'Italia 4:08 meridionale vari castelli dove collocò 4:11 le sue truppe che dovevano controllare 4:14 il territorio e sedare eventuali rivolte 4:18 Vanno menzionati in particolare il 4:21 castello di Melfi in Basilicata dove 4:25 furono promulgate le famose costituzioni 4:29 melfitane una raccolta di leggi scritte 4:32 rivolte a tutti gli abitanti del regno 4:35 con cui si limitavano i poteri dei 4:38 baroni locali e si vietava il ricorso 4:41 alla vendetta personale per affidarsi 4:44 invece alla giustizia stabilita dalle 4:47 leggi 4:48 C'era poi il castello di Trani che aveva 4:51 la funzione di sorvegliare l'ingresso 4:54 alla città e al porto E infine il 4:58 celeberrimo castel del Monte 5:01 caratterizzato da un'originale pianta 5:03 ottagonale attorniata da torri anch'esse 5:07 ottagonali che fungeva da dimora come 5:10 testimoniato dalla presenza di grandi 5:13 camini Uomo colto fine giurista 5:17 Amante dell'arte della letteratura 5:20 Federico II ospitò alla sua corte 5:22 studiosi e artisti provenienti da tutta 5:25 Europa Dialogò con intellettuali arabi e 5:29 fondò l'Università di Napoli che ancora 5:32 oggi porta il suo 5:35 nome Con l'editto di Salerno regolamentò 5:38 per la prima volta la professione del 5:41 farmacista separandola di fatto da 5:44 quella del medico scrisse anche un libro 5:48 un manuale sulla falconeria e sull'arte 5:52 venatoria chiamato de Arte venandi cum 5:57 avibus ossia l'arte di cacciare con gli 6:01 uccelli che fu uno dei primi manoscritti 6:04 con disegni a tema 6:08 naturalistico In una nota alla sua morte 6:11 il monaco Matteo Paris lo chiamerà 6:14 stupor Mundi cioè stupore del mondo Un 6:19 appellativo che racchiude l'essenza 6:21 della sua inestinguibile curiosità 6:25 intellettuale che lo portò ad 6:27 approfondire la filosofia l'astrologia 6:30 la matematica l'algebra la medicina e le 6:34 scienze naturali ha al punto da 6:37 impiantare a Palermo persino uno zoo 6:40 famoso ai suoi tempi per il gran numero 6:43 di animali esotici che conteneva anche 6:46 un 6:47 elefante I rapporti col papo però non 6:51 furono idiaci 6:53 Sia Papa Onorio II che Gregorio Io detto 6:57 anche il Papa Guerriero lo costrinsero a 7:00 intraprendere una nuova crociata in 7:02 Terra Santa minacciando di scomunicarlo 7:06 qualora non l'avesse 7:08 fatto Così dopo tanta insistenza da 7:11 parte del papato Federico si mise in 7:13 viaggio per la Terra Santa 7:16 Giunto in Oriente però non mosse guerra 7:19 ai musulmani ma preferì stringere 7:22 accordi con il sultano d'Egitto 7:25 ottenendo il controllo della città di 7:27 Gerusalemme e una tregua di 10 anni 7:32 Si trattava di conquiste importanti dal 7:34 punto di vista diplomatico ma al suo 7:37 ritorno Federico II fu accusato 7:40 duramente di essere sceso a patti con 7:42 gli 7:43 infedeli Nel suo programma di governo 7:47 Federico II era intenzionato a 7:49 riaffermare la sua autorità sui comuni 7:52 del Nord Italia fatto che preoccupava il 7:56 Papa il quale temeva il rafforzamento 7:59 del potere imperiale anche a nord dello 8:02 Stato Pontificio già confinante a sud 8:05 con il Regno di Sicilia 8:08 In pratica il Papa si sentiva 8:11 schiacciato sia a nord che a sud 8:14 dall'imperatore Così Papa Gregorio Io 8:18 appoggiò alcuni comuni che si riunirono 8:20 nella Lega Lombarda e che furono detti 8:24 guelfi A questi si contrapposero i 8:27 comuni ghibellini che decisero di 8:30 schierarsi a sostegno 8:33 dell'imperatore Iniziò così una 8:35 lunghissima contesa che avrebbe 8:38 dilaniato le città 8:41 italiane Tutto 8:43 chiaro ciao e al prossimo 8:49 video Se questo video ti è piaciuto ti 8:52 chiedo di fare mi piace cliccando 8:53 sull'icona qui sotto Per me è molto 8:55 importante quindi grazie in anticipo se 8:57 lo farai Per essere informato ogni volta 8:59 che pubblico un nuovo video ricorda di 9:01 cliccare anche sul grande pulsante rosso 9:02 Iscriviti e sulla campanella di fianco 9:05 [Musica]Make a multiple choice quiz for my year 8 science students based on the science in this transcript from a video: 3°C 0:04 It can be the difference between snow and sleet 0:08 Wearing a jacket or not 0:11 In your day-to-day life, it may not seem significant 0:15 But 3°C of global warming would be catastrophic 0:20 Heatwaves, droughts, extreme precipitation, even fire 0:25 3°C of warming is really disastrous 0:28 The scary thing is, the world is well on its way there 0:32 Since the industrial revolution, the Earth has warmed between 1.1°C and 1.3°C 0:40 This is a problem that babies you pass in the street will have to live with 0:46 Children born today... 0:47 ...are up to seven times more likely to face extreme weather than their grandparents 0:52 If global temperatures do rise by 3°C... 0:55 ...what would their world look like? Climate change is already having devastating effects 1:03 Rising sea levels 1:05 Desertification 1:07 Hollywood has always enjoyed imagining the end of the world 1:11 While blockbusters like this are clearly fiction... 1:14 ...this film will show the scenario we all face... 1:17 ...unless more drastic measures are taken to stop burning fossil fuels 1:30 In some parts of the world the effects of inaction are already clear 1:35 The slums of Bangladesh’s capital are filling up with climate migrants 1:41 Minara comes from Bhola District, an area in southern Bangladesh 1:46 There, like many other parts of the country... 1:49 ...rivers swollen by heavier rain and melting Himalayan glaciers... 1:53 ...are washing away people’s homes 1:56 Many, like her, have lost everything 2:00 Our home in Bhola had endless amounts of land 2:03 There was lots of space for farming, we had a spacious house 2:08 There were different types of fruits, vegetation and trees growing at home 2:12 We used to eat the fruit from our own trees 2:18 I can’t eat them now because they don't exist anymore 2:21 Since the river flooded for the third time, I had to flee to Dhaka 2:26 Life was much better back home 2:29 It was unbearable to live through, truly intolerable 2:33 We didn’t have the time to save anything at all 2:38 1.1°C to 1.3°C of global warming has already transformed Minara’s life 2:45 It’s one of the reasons why so many migrants like her... 2:47 ...are moving to the city each year... 2:50 ...nearly 400,000 according to the last estimate 2:53 And climate models show there could be much worse to come How climate modelling works 3:02 Climate scientist Joeri Rogelj... 3:04 ...has spent the last ten years modelling future climate scenarios... 3:08 ...for the United Nations 3:10 The models we use to carry out this exercise... 3:13 ...really represent the state of the art... 3:15 ...of our current knowledge of climate change and where we are heading 3:19 Joeri’s projections use data collected by hundreds of scientists around the world 3:26 Here this is the 3°C level... 3:28 ...and so there is at least a one-in-four chance that under current policies... 3:32 ...we would hit 3°C by the end of the century 3:36 This is just one of the scenarios Joeri looks at 3:40 Another one imagines that all policy promises are kept 3:44 The most optimistic assumes that all promises have been kept... 3:47 ...and net-zero targets are met 3:50 Where our best estimate ends up around 2°C at the end of the century... 3:54 ...there is still a one-in-20 chance that we end up with 3°C instead 3:59 One would not be entering a plane if there is a one-in-20 chance... 4:03 ...that the plane will crash Nowhere is safe from global warming 4:07 A rise of 3°C would affect everyone 4:10 Even wealthy cities in rich countries wouldn’t be immune to the consequences 4:15 European capitals like Paris and Berlin... 4:18 ...would bake under more extreme heatwaves 4:22 Frequent storm-surges in New York could turn parts of the city desolate 4:27 In many ways, cities magnify, intensify climate events 4:33 Cities are hotter than the places around them... 4:36 ...they tend to be more vulnerable to flooding 4:39 And you can get a really bad event in a city in a way that you can’t in the countryside 4:46 And because of their denser populations... 4:49 ...disasters in a city affect far more people 4:52 Some cities might be badly prepared for the changes coming 4:56 But they have the means to adapt 4:59 Cities tend to be wealthier than surrounding places 5:03 They have a lot of amenities 5:05 A city that has taken seriously the risks of a 3°C world... 5:08 …wouldn’t necessarily be a worse place to be in a 3°C world 5:12 But a city that hasn’t prepared for these sort of eventualities... 5:16 ...that might be a really nasty place The impact of prolonged droughts 5:20 So far, many developed cities have got off lightly... 5:24 ...but some rural parts of the world are suffering disproportionately 5:29 Smallholders—small-scale farmers—are particularly vulnerable to climate change 5:35 And there are over 600 million around the world 5:38 Smallholders with farms under two hectares... 5:40 ...produce around a third of the global food supply 5:46 Central America’s “Dry Corridor”... 5:48 ...supports a mix of smallholdings and medium-sized farms 5:53 Sandwiched between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea... 5:56 ...the area is prone to droughts 6:08 Israel Ramírez Rivera is a smallholder in Guatemala 6:12 Here, climate change is making the dry seasons longer, and more severe 6:18 This is the biggest ear of maize that this plot could deliver 6:23 He depends on his crops of corn and beans 6:26 But they’re getting harder to grow 6:30 The surrounding mountains... 6:32 ...used to provide us with native food... 6:38 ...and now that isn’t an option anymore... 6:41 ...due to climate change and its effects 6:46 Nearly two-thirds of the smallholders in the Dry Corridor now live in poverty 6:52 The impact of all of this for us... 6:59 ...malnutrition among children 7:03 We’ve lost a few 7:07 For my crops especially, the midsummer heat is harder than before 7:16 The plant dries up and can’t provide us... 7:19 ...with the necessary food provision 7:24 Severe droughts in Central America... 7:26 ...are now four times more likely than they were last century 7:30 Many families from here have gone to the States 7:37 The economic despair and debts... 7:44 ...have pushed many people from this community to do this journey 7:53 Migration from Guatemala to the United States has quadrupled since 1990 7:59 Not all of this has been due to climate change 8:02 But longer droughts would force even more to move 8:05 In a 3°C world, annual rainfall in this region... 8:09 ...could drop by up to 14% 8:12 At 3°C, over a quarter of the world’s population... 8:16 ...could endure extreme droughts for at least a month of the year 8:19 Northern Africa could see droughts that last for years at a time Rising sea levels, storm surges and flooding 8:24 But for some, too much water will be the problem 8:29 10% of the world’s population lives on a coastline... 8:32 ...that’s less than 10 metres above sea level 8:35 For these coastal inhabitants, a 3°C world would spell disaster 8:40 By 2100, global sea levels could have climbed by half a metre from 2005 levels 8:46 Low-lying cities like Lagos would be especially vulnerable... 8:49 ...with up to up to a third of the population displaced 8:54 And in Fiji, rising waters are already upending lives 9:04 You can see the graveyard there, it’s all under water now... 9:08 ...due to this rising sea level and climate change 9:15 The village of Togoru in Fiji is being swallowed by the sea 9:19 Barney Dunn, the village headman, has seen over half the village disappear 9:24 Relatives’ houses have been abandoned, and family graves are now under water 9:29 We have been asked by the government to relocate... 9:32 ...but no one wants to relocate... 9:34 ...because we have our great-great-grandparents down there in the sea 9:39 This is the place we’ve been brought up in 9:41 ...it’s not easy to leave 9:44 Past attempts to build a seawall haven’t worked 9:48 But Barney sees building a new one as the village’s only hope 9:52 If they do that, maybe we can save whatever is left 9:56 But if we don’t have the seawall, then it will be keep eroding and time will come... 10:01 ...maybe in ten,15 years, Togoru will be all eroded 10:05 Rising seas also mean storms cause more floods 10:11 And many more countries could suffer 10:14 The Philippines and Myanmar are just two countries... 10:17 ...that will also see an increase in storm surges in a 3°C world 10:21 To escape, many will move… 10:24 …often, to urban areas Extreme heat and wet-bulb temperatures 10:27 Half the world’s population already lives in cities... 10:31 ...almost a third in slums 10:36 For them, a 3°C world could be deadly 10:40 Minara has moved to Dhaka to escape the impact of climate change 10:44 But life could get even worse for her 10:47 I’m struggling a lot nowadays 10:49 The heat during the day is unbearable 10:52 Even late at night it doesn’t cool down 10:57 The heat is getting more intense every day 10:59 I mean, it’s going to get much worse 11:03 I can barely survive it now, how will I live through it in the future? 11:08 Dhaka is getting hotter 11:11 In the last 20 years the average daytime temperature... 11:13 ...has crept up by nearly half a degree 11:17 Days that approach 40°C are now being reported 11:20 And high so-called wet-bulb temperatures are on the rise 11:26 A wet-bulb temperature is a measure of heat and humidity 11:30 Humans cool themselves by sweating… 11:32 But in these conditions, when relative humidity is near 100%... 11:36 ...sweat doesn’t evaporate well 11:38 So people can’t cool down… 11:41 ...even if given unlimited shade and water 11:45 At a high wet-bulb temperature, the body can’t lose heat... 11:49 ...and so it gets hotter and hotter... 11:51 ...and the body is designed to work at a given temperature 11:53 And if it gets too hot inside, you will die 11:58 The human limit for wet-bulb temperatures is 35°C... 12:02 ...around skin temperature 12:04 Dhaka will have a much higher chance... 12:05 ...of reaching dangerous wet-bulb temperatures... 12:07 ...if global warming reaches 3°C 12:12 You can’t really adapt to that 12:14 You have to get out. If the temperature is so high that you can’t work... 12:20 ...can’t do hard manual labour outside for significant parts of the year... 12:25 ...then many places will become functionally no longer part of the economy 12:33 Jacobabad in Pakistan, and Ras al Khaimah, in the United Arab Emirates... 12:37 ...have already recorded deadly wet-bulb temperatures 12:40 More of the tropics and the Persian Gulf... 12:43 ...as well as parts of Mexico and the south-eastern United States... 12:47 ...could all get to this threshold by the end of the century 12:50 Climate modelling might show us the weather Increased migration and conflict 12:52 But it doesn’t show us its other effects on society 12:56 Established migration patterns could change 12:59 Climate disasters may exacerbate reasons people cross borders 13:03 Within countries, more people will move to cities 13:07 In a 3°C world, tens of millions of people a year... 13:10 ...could be displaced by disasters made worse by climate change 13:15 When people are displaced by climate... 13:18 …they may well go to cities... 13:19 ...because cities are the places that attract people from the countryside already 13:25 A lot of people who can get to the developed world... 13:28 ...not least because the developed world tends to be less hot, will give that a go 13:35 As migration around the world increases... 13:38 ...there could be more competition for fewer resources 13:42 Water—already a highly contested resource—will be a focal point 13:47 Turkey’s new Ilisu dam has reduced the flow of water into Iraq 13:53 China lays claim to rivers vital to India and Pakistan 13:57 The prospect of a water-conflict makes people very uneasy 14:03 How national tensions would exacerbate those sorts of reactions... 14:08 ...in a 3°C world... 14:09 ...is the sort of thing that no one should really want to find out 14:14 I think you’d have to be incredibly sanguine... 14:16 ...not to think that the sort of climate extremes that we talk about... 14:19 ...in a 3°C world wouldn’t lead some places... 14:22 ...to the brink of societal collapse 14:25 Those lucky enough to escape unrest... Adaptation and mitigation are crucial 14:28 ...would still have to adapt to a radically different world 14:32 People can adapt to climate change in all sorts of ways, one of the most obvious ones... 14:37 ...is air conditioning 14:39 But other ways to adapt at a local or regional level... 14:42 ...I mean, one of the most obvious is diversifying agriculture 14:47 There are physical things you can do, like seawalls 14:52 The fact that people can adapt and that adaptation will reduce suffering... 14:57 ...doesn’t mean that it will eliminate suffering 15:00 Suffering is built into this whole process of heating up the planet 15:06 Adaptation will only get the world so far 15:09 The best way to deal with a 3°C world... 15:12 ...is not to go to a 3°C world 15:14 And that’s why increasing efforts on mitigation are important 15:17 It’s why working towards negative emissions... 15:20 ...that could bring down the temperature after it peaks are important 15:25 Once you get to a 3°C world, you are in real bad global trouble 15:33 The scale of change needed... 15:35 ...and the slow progress of governments so far... 15:38 ...means 3°C of warming is uncomfortably likely unless more is done 15:44 Despite existing pledges, greenhouse-gas emissions... 15:48 ...are still set to rise by 16% from 2010 levels by 2030 15:54 The need to act has never been clearer 15:57 There’s still time to reduce emissions, so that a 3°C world remains fiction... 16:02 ...rather than becoming factΤο μυοσκελετικό σύστημα Το μυοσκελετικό σύστημα αποτελεί το κινητικό σύστημα του ανθρώπινου οργανισμού. Τα διάφορα συστήματα του οργανισμού συνδέονται μεταξύ τους ανατομικά και λειτουργικά και με την επίδραση του νευρικού συστήματος και των ορμονών εμφανίζουν τον ανθρώπινο οργανισμό ως ενιαίο σύνολο. Τα συστήματα αποτελούν άθροισμα οργάνων, τα οποία έχουν κοινή καταγωγή και συνεργάζονται μεταξύ τους για την πραγματοποίηση μιας κοινής λειτουργίας. Οι βασικοί ιστοί, οι οποίοι αποτελούν τα όργανα του μυοσκελετικού συστήματος, είναι: 1) ο ερειστικός ιστός ο οποίος διακρίνεται στο: συνδετικό ιστό χονδρικό ιστό και στον οστίτη ιστό 2) ο μυϊκός ιστός Τα όργανα που αποτελούνται από ερειστικό ιστό είναι τα οστά και οι αρθρώσεις, οι οποίες συνδέουν μεταξύ τους τα οστά σχηματίζοντας τον ανθρώπινο σκελετό. Από μυϊκό ιστό αποτελούνται οι μύες. Τα οστά σχηματίζουν ένα σύστημα από μοχλούς οι οποίοι πολλαπλασιάζουν τις δυνάμεις που δημιουργούνται με τη συστολή των μυών μετατρέποντάς τις σε σωματικές κινήσεις. I. Οστίτης ιστός - σκελετικό σύστημα Ο οστίτης ιστός είναι από τους σκληρότερους ιστούς του ανθρώπινου σώματος και μετά το χόνδρο ο πιο ανθεκτικός στις πιέσεις. Καθώς αποτελεί το κύριο συστατικό του ώριμου σκελετού, υποβαστάζει τη μυϊκή μάζα, προστατεύει ζωτικά όργανα, όπως αυτά που περιέχονται στην κρανιακή και θωρακική κοιλότητα, και περικλείει το μυελό των οστών, όπου παράγονται τα κύτταρα του αίματος. Τα οστά επίσης χρησιμεύουν ως αποθήκη ασβεστίου, φωσφόρου και άλλων ιόντων, τα οποία μπορούν να αποδεσμεύουν ή να αποθηκεύουν με ελεγχόμενο τρόπο, ώστε να διατηρείται σταθερή η συγκέντρωση αυτών των σπουδαίων ιόντων στα υγρά του σώματος. α. Ο σκελετός του ανθρώπου Ο σκελετός του ανθρώπου διαιρείται στο σκελετό του κορμού και στο σκελετό των άκρων (Εικ. 6.1). Ο σκελετός του κορμού Υποδιαιρείται: i) στο σκελετό της κεφαλής, ii) στη σπονδυλική στήλη και iii) στο σκελετό του θώρακα. 24-0573.indd 113 13/7/2021 2:18:11 µµ 114 κεφάλαιο 6ο i) Ο σκελετός της κεφαλής περιλαμβάνει τα οστά του εγκεφάλου και του προσωπικού κρανίου. Τα οστά του εγκεφαλικού κρανίου είναι οκτώ, τέσσερα μονά και δύο διπλά. Μονά είναι το μετωπιαίο, το ινιακό, το σφηνοειδές και το ηθμοειδές. Διπλά είναι το κροταφικό (δεξιό-αριστερό) και το βρεγματικό (δεξιό-αριστερό) (Εικ. 6.2). Το προσωπικό κρανίο περιέχει την αρχή του αναπνευστικού και του πεπτικού συστήματος, γι’ αυτό ονομάζεται και σπλαγχνικό κρανίο. Αποτελείται από 14 οστά που είναι τα δύο δακρυϊκά, τα δύο ρινικά, οι δύο κάτω ρινικές κόγχες, η μονή ύνιδα, οι δύο άνω γνάθοι, τα δύο ζυγωματικά, τα δύο υπερώια και η μονή κάτω γνάθος, το μόνο κινητό οστό της κεφαλής. Η κάτω γνάθος αρθρώνεται με τα κροταφικά οστά και σχηματίζει την κροταφογναθική διάρθρωση. Τα οστά του προσωπικού κρανίου μαζί με μερικά οστά της βάσης του κρανίου σχηματίζουν οστέινες κοιλότητες, οι οποίες είναι: οι δύο οφθαλμικοί κόγχοι (δεΕικόνα 6.2 Ο σκελετός του κρανίου από τα πλάγια. Διακρίνονται τα οστά του εγκεφαλικού κρανίου. Ινιακό Σφηνοειδές Κροταφικό Βρεγματικό Μετωπιαίο 24-0573.indd 114 13/7/2021 2:18:12 µµ το μυοσκελετικό σύστημα 115 Εικόνα 6.3 Ο σκελετός του κρανίου από πρόσθια άποψη. Διακρίνονται τα οστά του σπλαχνικού κρανίου. ξιός-αριστερός), η ρινική κοιλότητα και η στοματική κοιλότητα (Εικ. 6.3). ii) Η σπονδυλική στήλη αποτελεί τον κύριο στηρικτικό σκελετικό άξονα του σώματος. Μ’ αυτή στηρίζεται η κεφαλή και ο κορμός, το δε βάρος τους μεταβιβάζεται με τα οστά της λεκάνης στα κάτω άκρα. Στο εσωτερικό της σπονδυλικής στήλης (σπονδυλικός σωλήνας) φιλοξενείται, προστατευόμενος από αυτήν ο νωτιαίος μυελός. Οφθαλμικός κόγχος κάτω γνάθος άνω γνάθος ζυγωματικό ρινική κοιλότητα 24-0573.indd 115 13/7/2021 2:18:12 µµ 116 κεφάλαιο 6ο Εικόνα 6.4 Η σπονδυλική στήλη του ανθρώπου. 1. Αυχενικοί σπόνδυλοι 2. Θωρακικοί σπόνδυλοι 3. Οσφυϊκοί σπόνδυλοι 4. Ιερό οστό 5. Σπόνδυλοι του κόκκυγα. Η σπονδυλική στήλη αποτελείται από 33-34 βραχέα οστά, τους σπονδύλους, τοποθετημένα το ένα πάνω στο άλλο με την παρεμβολή ενός χόνδρινου δίσκου, του μεσοσπον - δύλιου δίσκου. Οι μεσοσπονδύλιοι δίσκοι έχουν αρκετή ελαστικότητα, απορροφούν τα τραντάγματα και προσδίδουν ευκαμψία. Η σπονδυλική στήλη εμφανίζει πέ - ντε μοίρες: την αυχενική, τη θωρα - κική, την οσφυϊκή, την ιερή και την κοκκυγική, καθεμιά από τις οποίες αποτελείται από ορισμένο αριθμό σπονδύλων. Έτσι, ανάλογα με τη μοί - ρα, διακρίνουμε επτά αυχενικούς, δώδεκα θωρακικούς, πέντε οσφυ - ϊκούς, πέντε ιερούς και τρεις-τέσ - σερις κοκκυγικούς σπονδύλους. Οι αυχενικοί, θωρακικοί και οσφυϊ - κοί σπόνδυλοι είναι ανεξάρτητοι και ονομάζονται γνήσιοι σπόνδυλοι. Οι ιεροί και κοκκυγικοί έχουν συνοστε - ωθεί και σχηματίζουν αντίστοιχα ενι - αία οστά, το ιερό οστό και τον κόκ - κυγα, γι’ αυτό και ονομάζονται νόθοι σπόνδυλοι (Εικ. 6.4). iii) Ο σκελετός του θώρακα απο - τελείται από το στέρνο, τους δώδε - κα θωρακικούς σπονδύλους και τα δώδεκα ζεύγη πλευρών που εκτεί - νονται μεταξύ σπονδυλικής στήλης και στέρνου (Εικ. 6.5). Ο θώρακας στο σύνολό του έχει σχήμα κώνου αποπλατυσμένου από μπροστά προς τα πίσω. Εμφανίζει τρεις διαστάσεις (διαμέτρους): την κάθετη, την εγκάρσια και την προσθιοπίσθια, οι οποίες μεταβάλλονται στις διάφο - ρες φάσεις των αναπνευστικών κινή - σεων. Αποτελεί μια οστέινη κοιλότη - τα μέσα στην οποία προστατεύονται πολύτιμα όργανα όπως η καρδιά, οι πνεύμονες, μεγάλα αγγεία και νεύρα.