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Quiz by Adam Parol
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RPMS Quiz: Quality vs. Efficiency 1. A teacher spends five hours creating a highly interactive digital game for a single 40-minute lesson. This is an example of prioritizing: ⢠A) Quality over Efficiency ⢠B) Efficiency over Quality ⢠C) Administrative Competence ⢠D) Resource Management ⢠Hint: The focus is on high-level engagement, but the time investment is very high. 2. Which of the following best describes "Efficiency" in the context of the RPMS? ⢠A) Submitting all MOVs and reports on or before the deadline with minimal errors. ⢠B) Ensuring 100% of students pass the quarterly examination. ⢠C) Creating the most aesthetically pleasing portfolio in the department. ⢠D) Conducting home visits for every single student in a class of 50. ⢠Hint: Look for the option that emphasizes timeliness and resource use. 3. Using a "template" or a "reusable slide deck" for lesson planning is a strategy to improve: ⢠A) Efficiency ⢠B) Instructional Diversity ⢠C) Subject Matter Mastery ⢠D) Classroom Discipline ⢠Hint: Templates reduce the time spent on repetitive formatting. 4. If a teacher provides detailed, personalized feedback to every student but submits the grades two weeks late, they have achieved: ⢠A) High Quality, Low Efficiency ⢠B) Low Quality, High Efficiency ⢠C) High Quality, High Efficiency ⢠D) Low Quality, Low Efficiency ⢠Hint: The work itself is excellent, but the timing is poor. 5. Which tool improves Efficiency without sacrificing the Quality of assessment data? ⢠A) Automated Google Forms for multiple-choice quizzes. ⢠B) Giving everyone a passing grade to save time on checking. ⢠C) Writing long paragraphs of feedback on 200 paper-based essays. ⢠D) Skipping assessments entirely to finish the syllabus faster. ⢠Hint: Look for a balance where technology handles the "busy work." 6. When discussing Quality in your RPMS portfolio, which "Means of Verification" (MOV) is most appropriate? ⢠A) Sample of student work with constructive teacher comments. ⢠B) A logbook showing you arrived at school at 7:00 AM daily. ⢠C) A certificate for attending a 1-hour webinar. ⢠D) A photo of your organized teacher's cabinet. ⢠Hint: Quality is evidenced by the impact on student learning. 7. The concept of "Doing the right things" (Effectiveness) represents: ⢠A) Quality ⢠B) Efficiency ⢠C) Speed ⢠D) Compliance ⢠Hint: "Doing the right things" is about results; "Doing things right" is about process. 8. How does "Efficiency" help a teacher maintain "Quality" in the long run? ⢠A) It prevents burnout by optimizing workload, leaving energy for creative teaching. ⢠B) It allows the teacher to take more side jobs. ⢠C) It ensures the teacher never has to talk to parents. ⢠D) It proves that the teacher is smarter than their peers. ⢠Hint: Consider the relationship between teacher well-being and performance. 9. If a teacher's RPMS rating for Quality is 5 (Outstanding) but Efficiency is 2 (Fair), what is the most likely reason? ⢠A) The teacher produces excellent work but often misses deadlines. ⢠B) The teacher is very fast but makes many mistakes in their reports. ⢠C) The teacher is both slow and produces poor results. ⢠D) The students are failing despite the teacher being very organized. ⢠Hint: Check the gap between the high-standard output and the slow delivery. 10. What is the ultimate goal of balancing Quality and Efficiency in the PPST-RPMS? ⢠A) To achieve sustainable professional excellence that benefits the learners. ⢠B) To get a higher salary increase only. ⢠C) To impress the School Head during the observation. ⢠D) To finish the school year with the least amount of work possible. ⢠Hint: It's about long-term growth for both teacher and student. ________________________________________ Answer Key: 1. A | 2. A | 3. A | 4. A | 5. A | 6. A | 7. A | 8. A | 9. A | 10. A ________________________________________Riassunto lezione precedente Caratteristiche generali degli epiteli: â avascolarizzati â innervati â capacitĂ rigenerativa Funzioni: â Barriera â Secrezione Specializzazioni del dominio apicale: â Microvilli, orletto a spazzola â Stereociglia â Ciglia Specializzazioni del dominio laterale â Giunzioni cellulari [Qui inizia la lezione di oggi] Classificazione morfo-funzionale degli epiteliali di rivestimento ⎠Epiteli pavimentosi: se le cellule sono pavimentose ⎠Epiteli cubici: se le cellule sono cubiche, quindi altezza e larghezza si equivalgono ⎠Epiteli cilindrici: se le cellule hanno altezza maggiore della larghezza. Possono essere sia monostratificati quindi epiteli semplici, oppure pluristratificati Nellâ epitelio pluristratificato il nome dellâepitelio lo capiamo dallâultimo strato, per esempio se lâultimo strato ha cellule appiattite lâepitelio sarĂ pavimentoso, se lâultimo strato ha cellule cubiche sarĂ cubico stratificato. Non importa la forma delle cellule degli strati inferiori. Possono inoltre essere pluristratificati o epiteli di transizione. Classificazione in base alle specializzazioni ⎠Epiteli ciliati ⎠Epiteli non ciliati La morfologia dellâepitelio riflette un poâ la sua funzione, per esempio lâepitelio semplice si trova dove non serve una grande protezione da stress meccanico. Per esempio: epitelio squamoso semplice: nel polmone, dove devono essere facilitati gli scambi gassosi di ossigeno e anidride carbonica. Epitelio cubico semplice: nei dotti delle ghiandole esocrine; nei tubuli renali dove abbiamo sempre assorbimento o secrezione Epitelio colonnare semplice: riveste lâintestino, anche qui con funzione di assorbimento. Pseudostratificato: giĂ visto nella lezione precedente, lo troviamo ad esempio nella trachea, ed è un epitelio ciliato, dove le ciglia non servono a spostarsi. Gli epiteli semplici li troveremo in zone non sottoposte a grandi stress meccanici, ma dove câè bisogno di facilitare la funzione di assorbimento e scambio. Mentre gli epiteli stratificati li troviamo per esempio dellâepidermide, cavitĂ orale dellâesofago, vagina, ovvero sedi anatomiche solitamente esposte a stress meccnici. Epitelio di transizione: tipico della vescica, la cui caratteristica fondamentale è lâestensione. Esempio di epitelio pavimentoso semplice: Endotelio ovvero lâepitelio dei vasi sanguigni I vasi possono essere molto diversi fra loro ⎠Capillare: epitelio associato alla lamina basale ⎠Arterie: endotelio e lamina basale, e lamina elastica (formata da elastina, favorisce la dilatazione del vaso) che formano la tonaca intima; strato intermedio, tonaca media dove troviamo cellule muscolari lisce; tonaca avventizia di tessuto connettivo ⎠Vene: stessa struttura, ma è piĂš abbondante lo strato di tonaca avventizia (tessuto connettivale) rispetto alle arterie, dove la piĂš abbondante è la tonaca media. Nellâimmagine si vede come la dimensione di vene e arterie può cambiarne la morfologia. CAPILLARI La funzione dellâepitelio è di favorire gli scambi tra il torrente circolatorio e i tessuti. I capillari sono costituiti da una âbarrieraâ formata dalle cellule dellâendotelio e la lamina sottostante. dallâimmagine possiamo vedere allâinterno del capillare un globulo rosso, quindi il diametro di un capillare è molto ridotto, può essere anche piĂš piccolo di un globulo rosso, che per passare si deve deformare. Si vede il globulo rosso, la piastrina e la cellula endoteliale a formare la parete del capillare, dove câè lâasterisco è una zona piĂš elettrondensa che rappresenta la giunzione occludente. Le strutture piĂš sottili sono capillari Le arteriole le riconosciamo dalle cellule muscolari lisce. Possiamo vedere le cellule endoteliali che costituiscono la parete di questi vasi. Classificazione dei capillari A seconda della zona anatomica dove ci troviamo cambia la morfologia dei capillari. ⎠Capillari continui: cellule endoteliali giustapposte fra loro, giunzioni occludenti, lamina basale contigua, passaggio di sostanze è ampiamente regolato dalla cellula stessa. Possiamo trovare associati al capillare i periciti, che sono cellule staminali e vescicole che fanno pinocitosi (endocitosi di particelle liquide) ⎠Capillari fenestrati: dove devono essere favoriti gli scambi. Si formano fenestrazioni tra le cellule della parete del capillare. Recenti studi pensano che queste fenestrazioni siano il risultato di unâabbondante pinocitosi. ⎠Capillari discontinui/sinusoidi: le fenestrazioni sono ancora piĂš grandi e la lamina basale è discontinua, quindi passaggio favorito. Esempio in microscopia elettronica del capillare continuo e fenestrato nella prima immagine il capillare è continuo, non ci sono interruzioni della lamina basale, non ci sono fenestrazioni, sono evidenti le giunzioni cellulari, si vedono le vescicole di pinocitosi. Nella seconda immagine ci sono interruzioni delle cellule endoteliali. In questa immagine invece vediamo un e sinusoide in cui le fenestrazioni sono piĂš grandi, la lamina basale è discontinua, quindi passa anche il plasma. Associato alla cellula endoteliale possiamo trovare il Pericita, cellula staminale mesenchimale (cellula mesenchimale da origine a tessuto osseo, muscolare). Queste cellule hanno capacita di migrare e differenziarsi. Se per esempio rimuoviamo i periciti e induciamo una lesione per esempio a livello della spina dorsale dell'animale câè impossibilitĂ di rigenerazione del tessuto. CONDIZIONI PATOLOGICHE Ă importante mantenere la continuitĂ di questo epitelio, infatti la lesione dellâendotelio è patologica, si chiama Arterosclerosi una delle maggiori cause di morte. la lesione parte dalla tonaca intima (endotelio, lamina basale), per esempio causata da alti livelli di colesterolo. Infiltrazione, i monociti si depositano tra lamina elastica ed endotelio, i monociti migrano in questa zona, assorbono lipidi intorno a queste cellule schiumose e si può formare questa lesione che può far sforzare di piĂš il cuore, o provocare un embolo. Istologia di un vaso normale e un vaso con arterosclerosi. La colorazione è la Tricromica di Masson, che colora in viola i nuclei, in rosso il citoplasma e tessuto muscolare, in blu il collagene. Essendo il collagene il principale componente del tessuto connettivo nella seconda immagine notiamo deposizioni di tessuto connettivo in seguito alla lesione. [il professore nomina Histology guide, un sito consultabile online dove troviamo la maggior parte delle sezioni e immagini istologiche che lui spiega a lezione] MESOTELIO Altro esempio di epitelio pavimentoso semplice è il mesotelio, che riveste o le parti interne del corpo: mesotelio parietale; o gli organi: mesotelio viscerale. Per esempio la pleura viscerale riveste direttamente il polmone e la pleura parietale la parete del torace. Mesotelio che riveste il rene: singolo strato di cellule pavimentose. Mesotelio cardiaco: abbiamo una parete esterna: pericardio parietale; poi il liquido pericaridico che riduce lâattrito; e pericardio viscerale: diretto contatto col cuore. Nellâistologia del mesotelio vediamo uno strato di cellule e sotto la lamina basale le grosse cellule bianche sono di tessuto adiposo. Questo tipo di epitelio lo troviamo per esempio nellâintestino. Peritoneo parietale: parte esterna Dopo la parete muscolare câè la sierosa, mesotelio Viscerale, composto da cellule pavimentose semplici, lamina basale. ALVEOLO POLMONARE Nellâalveolo Polmonare lâepitelio pavimentoso semplice svolge un ruolo fondamentale, perchĂŠ deve facilitare gli scambi gassosi. Strato sottile: pneumocita dellâepitelio alveolare Capillare con globulo rosso Giunzioni occludenti tra pneumociti PATOLOGIA Rottura degli alveoli polmonari, per esempio inalando particolato, o col fumo di sigaretta, câè il collasso dellâalveolo polmonare, quindi infiltrazione di particolato: Enfisema; oppure con unâinfezione per esempio polmonite vediamo la presenza di essudato ricco di leucociti, quindi le cellule infiammatorie. EPITELIO CUBICO SEMPLICE Il nucleo della cellula è rotondo, non pĂš schiacciato come nelle cellule pavimentose. La cellula ha larghezza e altezza simili. Questo tipo di tessuto si trova nei dotti di alcune ghiandole, o le cellule secernenti dei follicoli tiroidei. Quindi con funzione di trasporto o secrezione. EPITELIO CILINDRICO SEMPLICE Nucleo solitamente posizionato nella parte piĂš vicina alla lamina basale, la cellula è alta e stretta. Tra le cellule epiteliali troviamo le cellule mucipare caliciformi. Cripte intestinali Spesso troviamo una presenza abbondante di microvilli che formano lâorletto. Nelle immagini vediamo lo stesso tessuto trattato con due colorazioni diverse, nella Tricromica di Masson la struttura colorata di azzurro è la lamina basale. Nelle cripte intestinali abbiamo sia assorbimento e secrezione. â Enterociti: dedicati allâassorbimento â Enteroendocrine: disperse nellâepitelio, considerate i maggiori organi esocrini del nostro organismo, rilasciano Somatotossina e istamina â Cellule di Paneth: secernono sostanze antimicrobiche, funzione di protezione â Cellule staminali: soprattutto nella parte piĂš basale della cripta â Cellule caliciformi Quelle indicate dalla freccia sono giunzioni occludenti PATOLOGIA La morfologia egli epiteli è importante, alterazioni di questi tessuti sono associate a patologie. Per esempio perdita di continuitĂ dellâepitelio dellâintestino che è rivelatore di una trasformazione neoplastica. Le cellule epiteliali assumono funzione mesenchimale e possono invadere la sottomucosa. Ă importante individuare la lesione prima che invada la sottomucosa perchĂŠ mentre lâepitelio è avascolarizzato nella sottomucosa ci sono i vasi sanguigni, e il tumore può fare metastasi. EPITELIO CILINDRICO SEMPLICE CILIATO nelle tube uterine abbiamo sia cellule ciliate che non ciliate, che provengono dalla stessa cellula iniziale che poi differenzia. [legge la slide accanto] EPITELIO PSEUDOSTRATIFICATO Come si può riconoscere? A prima vista sembra pluristratificato perchĂŠ i nuclei sono posti su nuclei differenti, ma non è cosĂŹ, perchĂŠ tutte le cellule poggiano sulla lamina basale. Ma non tutte le cellule arrivano nello strato apicale. Quindi il nucleo è delocalizzato nella parte piĂš grande della cellula. Possono essere ciliati o non ciliati. Lâepididimo per esempio ha specializzazioni ma sono Stereociglia, quindi è epitelio pluristratificato non ciliato. Mentre un esempio di epitelio pseudostratificato ciliato è la trachea. Le ciglia sono un poâ piĂš corte. (si riconosce la trachea perchĂŠ sotto lâepitelio ci sono dischi di cartillagine) Allâinterno dellâepitelio della trachea possiamo trovare cellule mucipare caliciformi, che secernono muco, e non sono ciliate. Evidente nellâimmagine con microscopio elettronico a scansione. TESSUTO EPITELIALE Epiteli pluristratificati Abbiamo visto gli epiteli semplici, quindi un unico strato di cellule e zero stratificazioni. Adesso vedremo alcune delle caratteristiche degli epiteli pluristratificati, che ovviamente presentano piĂš strati di cellule; spesso la forma delle cellule cambia allâinterno dei vari strati, e il nome viene dato dallo strato piĂš superficiale. In questo caso abbiamo epitelio pluristratificato pavimentoso, anche se in effetti la cellula dello strato basale è cubica. Qual è il ruolo di questi epiteli? Ă quello di garantire maggiore protezione. Una delle caratteristiche di questi epiteli è che la rigenerazione, il turn-over che si fa, cioè il cambio del tessuto, è garantito dallo strato basale, perchĂŠ nello strato profondo abbiamo le cellule staminali. Può essere non cheratinizzato, e lo troviamo nella bocca, nella faringe, nellâesofago, nella vagina e nel retto, oppure cheratinizzato, che è lâepitelio caratteristico dellâepidermide. Ad esempio in questo caso (foto sopra) che tipo di epitelio è? Pluristratificato pavimentoso, perchĂŠ le cellule circondate di azzurro nellâultimo strato, danno un epitelio pavimentoso. Nellâesofago abbiamo un epitelio pluristratificato non cheratinizzato. Come si può notare subito sotto lâultimo strato abbiamo il tessuto connettivo, con la presenza di vasi sanguigni e con la mucosa muscolare. Qual è una delle caratteristiche istologiche che giĂ si può apprezzare, come prima osservazione di questo epitelio? Cosa cambia tra questo strato (1) e questo altro strato (2) ? La densitĂ dei nuclei. Lâaspetto dello strato basale, normalmente, è appunto caratterizzato dalla maggior presenza dei nuclei, perchĂŠ come accennato, sono presenti le cellule staminali, quindi le cellule sono ancora capaci di replicarsi, per rimpiazzare le cellule che sono presenti negli strati piĂš superficiali, che sono sfaldate dallo stress meccanico. In alcuni animali anche lâesofago ha un epitelio cheratinizzato. Una delle tecniche che possiamo utilizzare per rivelare la presenza di cellule staminali, di cellule che stanno proliferando nello strato basale, è lâimmunoistochimica, con la quale usiamo un anticorpo, in questo caso un anticorpo rivolto verso una proteina chiamata CD156, che è un marcatore, una proteina, presente solo nelle cellule staminali; quindi se noi coloriamo il tessuto, facciamo unâibridazione con un anticorpo rivolto verso questa proteina, questo anticorpo è legato ad un enzima, che fa precipitare il substrato (in foto di colore marrone), e al microscopio ottico possiamo vedere dove sono presenti le cellule staminali. Lâalternativa è invece coniugare lâanticorpo con il fluoroforo, e andare ad osservare con un microscopio a fluorescenza. La pelle: lâepidermide Spesso troviamo in questo tipo di epiteli, questi ripiegamenti degli strati basali, ma anche negli strati piĂš superficiali, cosa che è evidente anche nellâepidermide. La cute è composta sia da un epitelio chiamato epidermide, sia dal derma sottostante che è un tessuto di natura connettivale. A seconda della sede anatomica che si sta analizzando, possiamo avere una cute sottile o una cute piĂš spessa, quello che cambia è proprio lo spessore dellâepidermide, in particolare dellâultimo strato. Questo è un esempio di cute sottile (sx), mentre questa è una cute spessa (dx). Si può apprezzare come, ad esempio, siano presenti dei ripiegamenti degli strati basali, ma in parte anche degli strati piĂš superficiali. Dove sono piĂš evidenti queste pieghe, ad esempio? Dove si formano le impronte digitali, viene accentuato il ripiegamento dello strato superficiale. Qui (sempre immagine sopra a dx) possiamo notare che nello strato superficiale, rispetto allo strato basale, non sono presenti i nuclei. A differenza dellâesofago in cui i nuclei sono presenti anche negli strati piĂš superficiali, nellâepidermide le cellule proprie degli strati superficiali (i cheratinociti) perdono i nuclei. Infatti cosĂŹ facendo viene creato lo strato chiamato cheratina. Ovvero nello strato corneo, quello piĂš superficiale, non abbiamo la presenza di nuclei. Quello che cambia allâinterno dei vari strati è la presenza o meno di determinati tipi di giunzioni. Nello strato basale sicuramente troviamo una giunzione, che non è presente negli altri strati, ovvero gli emidesmosomi. Questo perchĂŠ lâemidesmosoma è una giunzione che si trova tra la cellula epiteliale e la lamina basale, che ovviamente è a contatto solo con lâultimo strato. Quindi lâemidesmosoma qui colorato di verde (immagine sopra), è presente solo nello strato basale. Mentre cominciamo a vedere la presenza di desmosomi tra una cellula e lâaltra, che si mantengono nello strato basale ma anche nello strato spinoso. Lo strato granuloso è caratterizzato ad esempio dalla presenza di giunzioni occludenti e aderenti, che quindi rendono impermeabile lâepidermide e impediscono il passaggio di sostanze attraverso questo strato. Questi ultimi tipi di giunzioni le troviamo anche nello strato lucido, mentre i desmosomi corneificati o corneodesmosomi, li troviamo nello strato corneo. Anche il numero di cellule dei vari strati è pressochĂŠ costante. Strato basale Tramite questa sezione dellâepidermide andiamo ad ingrandire lo strato basale, a contatto con il tessuto connettivo sottostante, e possiamo vedere, come è rappresentato questo stato, ovvero la presenza massiva di nuclei, dovuti alla proliferazione delle cellule, che infatti sono positive a questâaltro marcatore, che è un importante regolatore del ciclo cellulare Ki67. Se facciamo l'immunoistochimica per questo fattore, le cellule degli strati basali lo respingono, perchĂŠ sono in attiva proliferazione. Quindi se per esempio abbiamo una lesione dellâepidermide, sicuramente questo marcatore non reagirĂ . Quindi le cellule perdono la capacitĂ di proliferare, nello strato spinoso e nello strato granuloso la perdono totalmente, e addirittura nello strato corneo perdono proprio il nucleo, quindi è impossibile che la cellula si replichi. E questa è lâimportanza dello strato basale, che regola il turnover di questo tessuto che è di circa 30-40 giorni, cioè una cellula passa dallo strato basale a quello corneo in 30-40 giorni, e cosĂŹ facendo si rinnova totalmente lâepidermide. Se guardiamo lo strato basale o germinativo, abbiamo una cellula piuttosto piccola, tondeggiante, prolifera e sono presenti sia desmosomi, sia emidesmosomi. Strato spinoso Nello strato spinoso, è presente uno spazio intercellulare tra una cellula e lâaltra. Si possono osservare delle spine, questi sono dei processi citoplasmatici, che servono poi a connettere un cheratinocita e lâaltro. Ovvero in queste spine sono presenti i desmosomi. In questo strato inizia il differenziamento cellulare, il cheratinocita inizia ad esprimere le cheratine, quindi perde la capacitĂ di proliferare. Strato granuloso Lo strato granuloso è chiamato cosĂŹ, proprio per il suo aspetto istologico, per la presenza di granuli allâinterno del citoplasma in ambiente cellulare. Normalmente dovrebbe riportare 3 file di cellule in questo strato, visualizzando la presenza dei granuli in ogni cellula. Questi granuli contengono proteine come cheratoialina, filegrina e loricrina, sostanze che serviranno, poi, a rendere lâepidermide resistente. Le giunzioni tra una cellula ed unâaltra sono desmosomi e giunzioni occludenti, infatti, se noi facciamo lâimmunofluorescenza per proteine come la claudina, che colora le giunzioni piĂš immature, possiamo colorare anche cellule degli strati limitrofi; se invece utilizziamo lâimmunofluorescenza per lâoccludina, che è una giunzione piĂš matura, si può vedere comâè proprio piĂš localizzata e ristretta allo strato granuloso. Inoltre si può notare (foto sotto) anche la microscopia elettronica con le giunzioni occludenti. Qui (sotto) possiamo vedere una bellissima immunoistochimica proprio con la claudina, dove possiamo vedere la sezione dellâepidermide con lâimmunoistochimica. E qui giĂ possiamo vedere alcune cellule, che perdono il nucleo negli strati piĂš superiori dello strato granuloso, e la cosa risulta poi evidente nello strato corneo, dove i nuclei sono assenti, che è la caratteristica fondamentale, con la quale si riconosce questo strato. Strato corneo La cellula quindi forma queste lamine, prive di nucleo, il citoplasma è farcito di cheratina aggregata, le giunzioni sono dei desmosomi modificati e sono rivestiti da un involucro cellulare corneificato, ovvero: involucrina, loricrina, filamenti di cheratina e molecole lipidiche, che rendono lo strato impermeabile. La cheratina va classificata tra i filamenti intermedi importanti nel citoscheletro. Infatti si ricordi la presenza dei filamenti sottili di actina, di tubulina e poi a seconda del tessuto possiamo avere dei determinati filamenti intermedi. In particolare, la cheratina forma il filamento intermedio nell'epitelio. I desmosomi, ovvero la giunzione tra un cheratinocita e lâaltro, è regolata dal pH. Per questo è importante mantenere il pH della cellula, perchĂŠ via via che aumentiamo lâaciditĂ del pH, promuoviamo lo sfaldamento dei cheratinociti e quindi il ricambio dello strato piĂš superficiale. In alcune sedi come, ad esempio, il palmo della mano e dei piedi, è presente un ulteriore strato, che è definito lucido, proprio per il suo aspetto istologico, ed è presente tra lo stato corneo e lo strato granuloso. Qui (sotto) abbiamo una microscopia elettronica a trasmissione di una sezione di tessuto di epidermide sottile, dove si possono vedere i cheratinociti nei vari strati. Questa la si può sempre colorare artificialmente e si può cosĂŹ riconoscere la struttura dei vari strati. Quindi sostanzialmente salendo dallo strato basale allo strato corneo, abbiamo il differenziamento dei cheratinociti dalle cellule staminali che sono in grado di replicarsi. Si ricordi infatti che per cellula staminale non si intende solo una cellula che è in grado di differenziarsi ma è anche in grado di autoregolarsi. Dunque da una parte formerĂ una nuova progenie di cellule staminali in grado di differenziarsi, dallâaltra i cheratinociti iniziano il processo di differenziamento passando allo strato spinoso. Iniziano quindi ad esprimere le cheratine, cambiano la forma, cambiano il tipo di giunzione, fino a produrre lâinvolucro di cheratina nello strato corneo e questo ha un timing ben preciso a seconda della zona. Per capire lâimportanza dellâaspetto molecolare di questo differenziamento (non verrĂ richiesto allâesame) si faccia presente che tutti i geni del differenziamento dellâepidermide sono presenti nei cluster presenti nel cromosoma umano. Ovvero sono presenti tutti i geni necessari per il progredire del differenziamento dei cheratinociti allâinterno dellâepidermide. Allâinterno degli epiteli non abbiamo solo i cheratinociti, ma abbiamo quattro tipi cellulari: -i cheratinociti -i melanociti - le cellule di Langerhans - le cellule di Merkel I melanociti Sono i responsabili della produzione della melanina, che è un pigmento, che viene formato dalla ossidazione della tirosina, ad opera della tirosinasi, viene accumulata allâinterno dei melanosomi, di queste vescicole, e poi vengono rilasciate dal melanocita e vanno a fondere con le cellule dei cheratinociti dello strato spinoso, e formano una sorta di barriera, al di sopra del nucleo delle cellule dello strato spinoso. La funzione importante della melanina è (oltre a ârenderci piĂš attraenti dâestateâ) proteggere il nucleo delle cellule dellâepidermide dai raggi ultravioletti, per impedire lâinsorgere di mutazioni. I melanociti si possono identificare nello strato basale, e infatti possiamo mettere in evidenza la presenza dei melanociti con dei marcatori (come, per esempio, le tirosinasi che formano la melanina), che sono localizzati nello strato basale. In questo caso possiamo vedere, nellâepitelio della cornea, la presenza dellâimmunofluorescenza, dei melanociti marcati con questo marcatore specifico del melanocita (e che quindi sono proprio nello strato basale). Questâultimo in particolare è positivo alla p-caderina che è quindi un marcatore del melanocita della cellula nello strato basale. Mentre la cheratina/la pan cheratina marca gli strati superiori. Cosa succede se abbiamo una iperplasia del melanocita? A cosa ci si sta predisponendo? Al melanoma. Quindi sotto un punto di vista medico istologico, prima di avere la trasformazione tumorale, i melanociti diventano piĂš abbondanti e di dimensioni piĂš irregolari. In particolare li troviamo anche negli strati superiori e non solo nello strato basale quando viene effettuato lâesame istologico. Cellule di Langerhans Le cellule di Langerhans sono delle cellule del sistema immunitario, che derivano dalla famiglia dellâovocita dei macrofagi, troviamo cellule derivate da questa famiglia in diversi tessuti, e nellâepidermide si differenziano nelle cellule di Langerhans. Per esempio nellâosso differenziano nellâosteoclasto, oppure nel connettivo in macrofagi. Quindi sono tutte cellule che derivano dallâovocita (da questa famiglia), e che hanno delle caratteristiche comuni, come la capacitĂ di fagocitare, o di presentare lâantigene. Sono marcate ad esempio dallâantigene Cd1, e sono la prima sentinella dellâepidermide per i noxa patogena. Ovvero possono fagocitare e possono attivare la risposta immunitaria in caso di patogeni. Qui possiamo vedere una cellula di Langerhans, allâinterno di uno strato spinoso, con questi lunghi processi citoplasmatici, che caratterizzano la cellula di Langerhans, ma anche le altre cellule della stessa famiglia. Cellula di Merkel Infine abbiamo la cellula di Merkel, che è responsabile della percezione sensitiva, quindi tramite il tatto, è piĂš abbondante in alcune zone anatomiche, come ad esempio i polpastrelli e le labbra. In questa microscopia elettronica a trasmissione, possiamo vedere, la cellula di Merkel sopra al nucleo, è presente nello strato basale, perchĂŠ subito sotto dal tessuto connettivo arrivano le terminazioni nervose, che prendono contatto diretto con la cellula di Merkel. Quindi la cellula di Merkel funziona da meccanorecettore, che trasmette direttamente al sistema nervoso la percezione meccanica. E qui possiamo vedere la giunzione con una cellula nervosa e la presenza delle cellule di Schwann, che sono delle cellule di sostegno associate al neurone, che stabilizzano le giunzioni con le sinapsi dei neuroni, e hanno poi la funzione di formare la guaina mielinica lungo lâassone. Non esistono solo le cellule di Merkel come recettori del tatto associati alla cute (lo vedremo poi con anatomia), esistono terminazioni nervose libere, corpuscoli dei bacilli e altre strutture. Abbiamo poi gli epiteli pluristratificati pavimentosi. Ma abbiamo la distribuzione limitata anche degli epiteli pluristratificati cubici (in foto a dx), che sono presenti in alcuni solchi maggiori e in alcune ghiandole esocrine (la funzione è sempre quella di trasporto). Lo stratificato colonnare, che è molto raro nei mammiferi (in foto a sx), presenta sempre alcuni dotti di alcune ghiandole esocrine. Ă caratterizzato di solito da due strati: uno di cellule cubiche e uno superiore di cellule cilindriche o colonnari. Infine abbiamo lâepitelio di transizione, che a seconda dello stato rilassato o disteso dellâorgano, ha una conformazione differente. Quando la vescica è rilassata, abbiamo un maggior numero di strati, le cellule superficiali hanno questa forma a cupola; quando, invece, la vescica è piena lâepitelio/il tessuto si distende, e questo anche grazie alla presenza delle giunzioni tra una cellula epiteliale e lâaltra, le cellule cambiano di forma e ci appaiono piĂš schiacciate, ad esempio negli strati piĂš superficiali (quindi diminuisce il numero di strati). Questa caratteristica permette una grande capacitĂ di distensione. Cosa intendiamo con Metaplasia? Intendiamo un processo che è ancora reversibile, dove la cellula epiteliale passa da un tipo di epitelio a un altro, perchĂŠ sottoposta, ad esempio a stress, o costante infiammazione o infezione virale. Quindi la metaplasia è il primo passo della trasformazione carcinogenica a cellule squamose o ad adenocarcinoma. Per esempio in foto è presente la cervice uterina, dove lâepitelio colonnare semplice converte, quando abbiamo metaplasia, in epitelio squamoso stratificato, che è ovviamente disfunzionale. Per esempio se si prendesse la trachea di ratto, esposta o meno al fumo di sigaretta (ovvero un fattore stressogeno), le cellule sono sottoposte continuamente a sostanze infiammatorie, che possono causare la mutazione dellâepitelio della trachea, che è pseudostratificato ciliato, ad un epitelio che invece è stratificato. Quindi ovviamente, in questo caso si ha una perdita di funzione dellâepitelio della trachea. Early society and accomplishments Origins Knowledge of the early prehistory of Southeast Asia has undergone exceptionally rapid change as a result of archaeological discoveries made since the 1960s, although the interpretation of these findings has remained the subject of extensive debate. Nevertheless, it seems clear that the region has been inhabited from the earliest times. Hominid fossil remains date from approximately 1,500,000 years ago and those of Homo sapiens from approximately 40,000 years ago. Furthermore, until about 7000 bce the seas were some 150 feet (50 metres) lower than they are now, and the area west of Makassar Strait consisted of a web of watered plains that sometimes is called Sundaland. These land connections perhaps account for the coherence of early human development observed in the Hoabinhian culture, which lasted from about 13,000 to 5000 or 4000 bce. The stone tools used by hunting and gathering societies across Southeast Asia during this period show a remarkable degree of similarity in design and development. When the sea level rose to approximately its present level about 6000 bce, conditions were created for a more variegated environment and, therefore, for more extensive differentiation in human development. While migration from outside the region may have taken place, it did not do so in a massive or clearly punctuated fashion; local evolutionary processes and the circulation of peoples were far more powerful forces in shaping the regionâs cultural landscape. Technological developments and population expansion Perhaps because of a particular combination of geophysical and climatic factors, early Southeast Asia did not develop uniformly in the direction of increasingly complex societies. Not only have significant hunting and gathering populations continued to exist into the 21st century, but the familiar cultural sequences triggered by such events as the discovery of agriculture or metallurgy do not seem to apply. This is not to say that the technological capabilities of early Southeast Asian peoples were negligible, for sophisticated metalworking (bronze) and agriculture (rice) were being practiced by the end of the 3rd millennium bce in northeastern Thailand and northern Vietnam, and sailing vessels of advanced design and sophisticated navigational skills were spread over a wider area by the same time or earlier. Significantly, these technologies do not appear to have been borrowed from elsewhere but were indigenous and distinctive in character. Austronesian languages Austronesian languagesMajor divisions of the Austronesian languages. These technological changes may partially account for two crucial developments in Southeast Asiaâs later prehistory. The first is the extraordinary seaborne expansion of speakers of Proto-Austronesian languages and their descendants, speakers of Austronesian (or Malayo-Polynesian) languages, which occurred over a period of 5,000 years or more and came to encompass a vast area and to stretch nearly half the circumference of Earth at the Equator. This outward movement of people and culture was evolutionary rather than revolutionary, the result of societal preference for small groups and a tendency of groups to hive off once a certain population size had been reached. It began as early as 4000 bce, when Taiwan was populated from the Asian mainland, and subsequently it continued southward through the northern Philippines (3rd millennium bce), central Indonesia (2nd millennium bce), and western and eastern Indonesia (2nd and 1st millennia bce). From approximately 1000 bce on the expansion continued both eastward into the Pacific, where that immense region was populated in a process continuing to about 1000 ce as voyagers reached the Hawaiian Islands and New Zealand, and westward, where Malay peoples reached and settled the island of Madagascar sometime between 500 and 700 ce, bringing with them (among other things) bananas, which are native to Southeast Asia. Thus, for a considerable period of time, the Southeast Asian region contributed to world cultural history, rather than merely accepting outside influences, as frequently has been suggested. The second development, which began possibly as early as 1000 bce, centred on the production of fine bronze and the fashioning of bronze-and-iron objects, particularly as they have been found at the site in northern Vietnam known as Dong Son. The earliest objects consisted of socketed plowshares and axes, shaft-hole sickles, spearheads, and such small items as fishhooks and personal ornaments. By about 500 bce the Dong Son culture had begun producing the bronze drums for which it is known. The drums are large objects (some weigh more than 150 pounds [70 kg]), and they were produced by the difficult lost-wax casting process and decorated with fine geometric shapes and depictions of animals and humans. This metal industry was not derived from similar industries in China or India. Rather, the Dong Son period offers one of the most powerfulâthough not necessarily the only or earliestâexamples of Southeast Asian societies transforming themselves into more densely populated, hierarchical, and centralized communities. Since typical drums, either originals or local renditions, have been found throughout Southeast Asia and since they are associated with a rich trade in exotics and other goods, the Dong Son culture also suggests that the region as a whole consisted not of isolated, primitive niches of human settlement but of a variety of societies and cultures tied together by broad and long-extant trading patterns. Although none of these societies possessed writing, some displayed considerable sophistication and technological skill, and, although none appears to have constituted a territorial centralized state, new and more complex polities were forming.Make a multiple choice quiz for my year 8 science students based on the science in this transcript from a video: 3°C 0:04 It can be the difference between snow and sleet 0:08 Wearing a jacket or not 0:11 In your day-to-day life, it may not seem significant 0:15 But 3°C of global warming would be catastrophic 0:20 Heatwaves, droughts, extreme precipitation, even fire 0:25 3°C of warming is really disastrous 0:28 The scary thing is, the world is well on its way there 0:32 Since the industrial revolution, the Earth has warmed between 1.1°C and 1.3°C 0:40 This is a problem that babies you pass in the street will have to live with 0:46 Children born today... 0:47 ...are up to seven times more likely to face extreme weather than their grandparents 0:52 If global temperatures do rise by 3°C... 0:55 ...what would their world look like? Climate change is already having devastating effects 1:03 Rising sea levels 1:05 Desertification 1:07 Hollywood has always enjoyed imagining the end of the world 1:11 While blockbusters like this are clearly fiction... 1:14 ...this film will show the scenario we all face... 1:17 ...unless more drastic measures are taken to stop burning fossil fuels 1:30 In some parts of the world the effects of inaction are already clear 1:35 The slums of Bangladeshâs capital are filling up with climate migrants 1:41 Minara comes from Bhola District, an area in southern Bangladesh 1:46 There, like many other parts of the country... 1:49 ...rivers swollen by heavier rain and melting Himalayan glaciers... 1:53 ...are washing away peopleâs homes 1:56 Many, like her, have lost everything 2:00 Our home in Bhola had endless amounts of land 2:03 There was lots of space for farming, we had a spacious house 2:08 There were different types of fruits, vegetation and trees growing at home 2:12 We used to eat the fruit from our own trees 2:18 I canât eat them now because they don't exist anymore 2:21 Since the river flooded for the third time, I had to flee to Dhaka 2:26 Life was much better back home 2:29 It was unbearable to live through, truly intolerable 2:33 We didnât have the time to save anything at all 2:38 1.1°C to 1.3°C of global warming has already transformed Minaraâs life 2:45 Itâs one of the reasons why so many migrants like her... 2:47 ...are moving to the city each year... 2:50 ...nearly 400,000 according to the last estimate 2:53 And climate models show there could be much worse to come How climate modelling works 3:02 Climate scientist Joeri Rogelj... 3:04 ...has spent the last ten years modelling future climate scenarios... 3:08 ...for the United Nations 3:10 The models we use to carry out this exercise... 3:13 ...really represent the state of the art... 3:15 ...of our current knowledge of climate change and where we are heading 3:19 Joeriâs projections use data collected by hundreds of scientists around the world 3:26 Here this is the 3°C level... 3:28 ...and so there is at least a one-in-four chance that under current policies... 3:32 ...we would hit 3°C by the end of the century 3:36 This is just one of the scenarios Joeri looks at 3:40 Another one imagines that all policy promises are kept 3:44 The most optimistic assumes that all promises have been kept... 3:47 ...and net-zero targets are met 3:50 Where our best estimate ends up around 2°C at the end of the century... 3:54 ...there is still a one-in-20 chance that we end up with 3°C instead 3:59 One would not be entering a plane if there is a one-in-20 chance... 4:03 ...that the plane will crash Nowhere is safe from global warming 4:07 A rise of 3°C would affect everyone 4:10 Even wealthy cities in rich countries wouldnât be immune to the consequences 4:15 European capitals like Paris and Berlin... 4:18 ...would bake under more extreme heatwaves 4:22 Frequent storm-surges in New York could turn parts of the city desolate 4:27 In many ways, cities magnify, intensify climate events 4:33 Cities are hotter than the places around them... 4:36 ...they tend to be more vulnerable to flooding 4:39 And you can get a really bad event in a city in a way that you canât in the countryside 4:46 And because of their denser populations... 4:49 ...disasters in a city affect far more people 4:52 Some cities might be badly prepared for the changes coming 4:56 But they have the means to adapt 4:59 Cities tend to be wealthier than surrounding places 5:03 They have a lot of amenities 5:05 A city that has taken seriously the risks of a 3°C world... 5:08 âŚwouldnât necessarily be a worse place to be in a 3°C world 5:12 But a city that hasnât prepared for these sort of eventualities... 5:16 ...that might be a really nasty place The impact of prolonged droughts 5:20 So far, many developed cities have got off lightly... 5:24 ...but some rural parts of the world are suffering disproportionately 5:29 Smallholdersâsmall-scale farmersâare particularly vulnerable to climate change 5:35 And there are over 600 million around the world 5:38 Smallholders with farms under two hectares... 5:40 ...produce around a third of the global food supply 5:46 Central Americaâs âDry Corridorâ... 5:48 ...supports a mix of smallholdings and medium-sized farms 5:53 Sandwiched between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea... 5:56 ...the area is prone to droughts 6:08 Israel RamĂrez Rivera is a smallholder in Guatemala 6:12 Here, climate change is making the dry seasons longer, and more severe 6:18 This is the biggest ear of maize that this plot could deliver 6:23 He depends on his crops of corn and beans 6:26 But theyâre getting harder to grow 6:30 The surrounding mountains... 6:32 ...used to provide us with native food... 6:38 ...and now that isnât an option anymore... 6:41 ...due to climate change and its effects 6:46 Nearly two-thirds of the smallholders in the Dry Corridor now live in poverty 6:52 The impact of all of this for us... 6:59 ...malnutrition among children 7:03 Weâve lost a few 7:07 For my crops especially, the midsummer heat is harder than before 7:16 The plant dries up and canât provide us... 7:19 ...with the necessary food provision 7:24 Severe droughts in Central America... 7:26 ...are now four times more likely than they were last century 7:30 Many families from here have gone to the States 7:37 The economic despair and debts... 7:44 ...have pushed many people from this community to do this journey 7:53 Migration from Guatemala to the United States has quadrupled since 1990 7:59 Not all of this has been due to climate change 8:02 But longer droughts would force even more to move 8:05 In a 3°C world, annual rainfall in this region... 8:09 ...could drop by up to 14% 8:12 At 3°C, over a quarter of the worldâs population... 8:16 ...could endure extreme droughts for at least a month of the year 8:19 Northern Africa could see droughts that last for years at a time Rising sea levels, storm surges and flooding 8:24 But for some, too much water will be the problem 8:29 10% of the worldâs population lives on a coastline... 8:32 ...thatâs less than 10 metres above sea level 8:35 For these coastal inhabitants, a 3°C world would spell disaster 8:40 By 2100, global sea levels could have climbed by half a metre from 2005 levels 8:46 Low-lying cities like Lagos would be especially vulnerable... 8:49 ...with up to up to a third of the population displaced 8:54 And in Fiji, rising waters are already upending lives 9:04 You can see the graveyard there, itâs all under water now... 9:08 ...due to this rising sea level and climate change 9:15 The village of Togoru in Fiji is being swallowed by the sea 9:19 Barney Dunn, the village headman, has seen over half the village disappear 9:24 Relativesâ houses have been abandoned, and family graves are now under water 9:29 We have been asked by the government to relocate... 9:32 ...but no one wants to relocate... 9:34 ...because we have our great-great-grandparents down there in the sea 9:39 This is the place weâve been brought up in 9:41 ...itâs not easy to leave 9:44 Past attempts to build a seawall havenât worked 9:48 But Barney sees building a new one as the villageâs only hope 9:52 If they do that, maybe we can save whatever is left 9:56 But if we donât have the seawall, then it will be keep eroding and time will come... 10:01 ...maybe in ten,15 years, Togoru will be all eroded 10:05 Rising seas also mean storms cause more floods 10:11 And many more countries could suffer 10:14 The Philippines and Myanmar are just two countries... 10:17 ...that will also see an increase in storm surges in a 3°C world 10:21 To escape, many will move⌠10:24 âŚoften, to urban areas Extreme heat and wet-bulb temperatures 10:27 Half the worldâs population already lives in cities... 10:31 ...almost a third in slums 10:36 For them, a 3°C world could be deadly 10:40 Minara has moved to Dhaka to escape the impact of climate change 10:44 But life could get even worse for her 10:47 Iâm struggling a lot nowadays 10:49 The heat during the day is unbearable 10:52 Even late at night it doesnât cool down 10:57 The heat is getting more intense every day 10:59 I mean, itâs going to get much worse 11:03 I can barely survive it now, how will I live through it in the future? 11:08 Dhaka is getting hotter 11:11 In the last 20 years the average daytime temperature... 11:13 ...has crept up by nearly half a degree 11:17 Days that approach 40°C are now being reported 11:20 And high so-called wet-bulb temperatures are on the rise 11:26 A wet-bulb temperature is a measure of heat and humidity 11:30 Humans cool themselves by sweating⌠11:32 But in these conditions, when relative humidity is near 100%... 11:36 ...sweat doesnât evaporate well 11:38 So people canât cool down⌠11:41 ...even if given unlimited shade and water 11:45 At a high wet-bulb temperature, the body canât lose heat... 11:49 ...and so it gets hotter and hotter... 11:51 ...and the body is designed to work at a given temperature 11:53 And if it gets too hot inside, you will die 11:58 The human limit for wet-bulb temperatures is 35°C... 12:02 ...around skin temperature 12:04 Dhaka will have a much higher chance... 12:05 ...of reaching dangerous wet-bulb temperatures... 12:07 ...if global warming reaches 3°C 12:12 You canât really adapt to that 12:14 You have to get out. If the temperature is so high that you canât work... 12:20 ...canât do hard manual labour outside for significant parts of the year... 12:25 ...then many places will become functionally no longer part of the economy 12:33 Jacobabad in Pakistan, and Ras al Khaimah, in the United Arab Emirates... 12:37 ...have already recorded deadly wet-bulb temperatures 12:40 More of the tropics and the Persian Gulf... 12:43 ...as well as parts of Mexico and the south-eastern United States... 12:47 ...could all get to this threshold by the end of the century 12:50 Climate modelling might show us the weather Increased migration and conflict 12:52 But it doesnât show us its other effects on society 12:56 Established migration patterns could change 12:59 Climate disasters may exacerbate reasons people cross borders 13:03 Within countries, more people will move to cities 13:07 In a 3°C world, tens of millions of people a year... 13:10 ...could be displaced by disasters made worse by climate change 13:15 When people are displaced by climate... 13:18 âŚthey may well go to cities... 13:19 ...because cities are the places that attract people from the countryside already 13:25 A lot of people who can get to the developed world... 13:28 ...not least because the developed world tends to be less hot, will give that a go 13:35 As migration around the world increases... 13:38 ...there could be more competition for fewer resources 13:42 Waterâalready a highly contested resourceâwill be a focal point 13:47 Turkeyâs new Ilisu dam has reduced the flow of water into Iraq 13:53 China lays claim to rivers vital to India and Pakistan 13:57 The prospect of a water-conflict makes people very uneasy 14:03 How national tensions would exacerbate those sorts of reactions... 14:08 ...in a 3°C world... 14:09 ...is the sort of thing that no one should really want to find out 14:14 I think youâd have to be incredibly sanguine... 14:16 ...not to think that the sort of climate extremes that we talk about... 14:19 ...in a 3°C world wouldnât lead some places... 14:22 ...to the brink of societal collapse 14:25 Those lucky enough to escape unrest... Adaptation and mitigation are crucial 14:28 ...would still have to adapt to a radically different world 14:32 People can adapt to climate change in all sorts of ways, one of the most obvious ones... 14:37 ...is air conditioning 14:39 But other ways to adapt at a local or regional level... 14:42 ...I mean, one of the most obvious is diversifying agriculture 14:47 There are physical things you can do, like seawalls 14:52 The fact that people can adapt and that adaptation will reduce suffering... 14:57 ...doesnât mean that it will eliminate suffering 15:00 Suffering is built into this whole process of heating up the planet 15:06 Adaptation will only get the world so far 15:09 The best way to deal with a 3°C world... 15:12 ...is not to go to a 3°C world 15:14 And thatâs why increasing efforts on mitigation are important 15:17 Itâs why working towards negative emissions... 15:20 ...that could bring down the temperature after it peaks are important 15:25 Once you get to a 3°C world, you are in real bad global trouble 15:33 The scale of change needed... 15:35 ...and the slow progress of governments so far... 15:38 ...means 3°C of warming is uncomfortably likely unless more is done 15:44 Despite existing pledges, greenhouse-gas emissions... 15:48 ...are still set to rise by 16% from 2010 levels by 2030 15:54 The need to act has never been clearer 15:57 Thereâs still time to reduce emissions, so that a 3°C world remains fiction... 16:02 ...rather than becoming factWHAT IS SCIENCE? - is a way in which answers related to NATURAL events are proposed. - a way in which people can learn and UNDERSTAND events in the NATURAL WORLD - based on OBSERVABLE EVENTS - a study of the NATURAL WORLD - a method of DISCOVERY and UNDERSTANDING by using a PROBLEM-SOLVING process called the?? - A systematic body of knowledge based on observation and experimentation. FOUR COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE: 1. It focuses on the NATURAL WORLD. 2. Goes through experiment. 3. Relies on evidence. 4. Passes through the scientific community. WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY? Brian Arthur (2009) defined technology as: 1. a means to fulfill a human purpose 2. assemblage of practices and components 3. a collection of devices and engineering practices available to a culture. SOCIETY ST (Science Technology) would not exist without society. WHAT IS STS? Science and Technology and Society (STS) is the study of how society, politics and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation and how these, in turn affects society, politics and culture. EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THAT TRANSFORMED THE SOCIETY (IN THE WORLD) ANCIENT PERIOD 3500 BC. - 500 AD EUROPE - use of fire by Homo Erectus CA 750,000 - Stone Headed Spears CA 45,000 - Wooden bow and arrow CA 20,000 - The Minoans build palaces in Crete CA 2,000 THE AMERICAS - The Folsom people living on eastern side of the Rocky Mountain developed sophisticated tools CA 8,000. - Pottery is made in South America CA 6,000 - Olmec sculpture carves figurines and giant human heads. CA 1200 ASIA AND OCEANA - Earliest known clay pots are made in Japan CA 11,000. - Bronze is first made in Thailand CA 4000 - A lunar calendar is developed in China CA 2950 - Chinese doctors begin using acupuncture CA 2500 - The Hindu calendar of 360 days was introduced in India CA 1000 AFRICA AND MIDDLE EAST - Homo erectus uses stone tools CA 1000000 - CA 15000 in Africa, bone harpoons are used for fishing. - Clay tokens are used for record keeping in Mesopotamia CA 7500 - Mesopotamian mathematicians discover the Pythagorean Theorem MEDIEVAL PERIOD CA 500 -1500 - Dark ages because few written records and evidences remained - Scholastic tradition was established by Charlemagne - Vertical windmills, spectacles, mechanical clock, water mills, gothic style were invented - Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press RENAISSANCE PERIOD 14TH â 17TH CENTURY - Rebirth of revival - Printing with movable type allowed Bible, secular books made in large amount - Nicolas Copernicus presented a heliocentric theory - Galileo Galilei invented telescope INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 18TH CENTURY - Skilled workers were set aside because of the machines - Iron production, steam engine and textile flourished - Scottish James Watt improved steam engine Robert Fulton (steam boat) - The following were invented: Light bulb, telephone, first steam powered locomotive 19TH CENTURY - Age of machine and tools - Herman Helmholtz (law of conservation of energy) - James Clark Maxwell (light as electro-magnetic wave) - Henry Becquerel (radioactivity) - Marie and Pierre Curie (radium) - Hans Christian Oersted (electric current near the magnet) - Michael Faraday (magnet produces electricity) - Atomic Theory proposed by John Dalton - Electron discovered by JJ. Thomson - Telegraph developed by Samuel Morse 20TH CENTURY - Communication, transportation, military research were developed - Personal computer was created - Intel developed microprocessor - Apple was introduced by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak - Internet was created (ARPANET) - Henry Ford's mass production of cars - Artificial Intelligence was invented SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY (PHILIPPINE HISTORY) Stone Age - Archeological findings show that modern man from Asian mainland first came over land on across narrow channels to live in Batangas and Palawan about 48,000 B.C. - Subsequently they formed settlement in Sulu, Davao, Zamboanga, Samar, Negros, Batangas, Laguna, Rizal, Bulacan and Cagayan. Inventions - They made simple tools and weapons of stone flakes and later developed method of sawing and polishing stones around 40,000 B.C. - By around 3,000 B.C. they were producing adzes ornaments of seashells and pottery. Pottery flourished for the next 2,000 years until they imported Chinese porcelain. Soon they learned to produce copper, bronze, iron, and gold metal tools and ornaments. Iron Age - The Iron Age lasted from the third century B.C. to 11th century A.D. During this period Filipinos were engaged in extraction smelting and refining of iron from ores, until the importation of cast iron from Sarawak and later from China. INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES - They learn to weave cotton, make glass ornaments, and cultivate lowland rice and dike fields of terraced fields utilizing spring water in mountain regions. - They also learned to build boats for trading purposes. - Spanish chronicles noted refined plank built warships called caracoa suited for interisland trade raids 10TH CENTURY A.D. - Filipinos from the Butuan were trading with Champa (Vietnam) and those from Ma-I (Mindoro) with China as noted in Chinese records containing several references to the Philippines. These archaeological findings indicated that regular trade relations between the Philippines, China and Vietnam had been well established from the 10th century to the 15th century A.D. TRADING - The People of Ma-I and San-Hsu (Palawan) traded bee wax, cotton, pearls, coconut heart mats, tortoise shell and medicinal betel nuts, panie cloth for porcelain, leads fishnets sinker, colored glass beads, iron pots, iron needles and tin. SOME PRESPANISH FILIPINO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY - Curative values of plants extract use as medicine - Alphabet (Alibata) - Counting Methods - Weights - Measuring system (isang gatang) - Calendar based on the periods of moon - Banaue Rice Terraces SPANISH REGIME ďˇ Religion the Catholic Church - The latter part of the 16th Century Development of schools: - Colegio de San Ildefonso-Cebu-1595 - Colegio de San Ignacio-Manila-1595 - Colegio De Nuestra Senora del Rosario-Manila 1597 - Colegio De San Jose-Manila-1601 ďˇ Colegio De San Ildefonso De Cebu - In 1863 the colonial authorities issued a royal degree to reform the existing educational system. In 1871 the school of medicine and pharmacy were opened to UST, after 15 years it had granted the degree Of Licenciado En Medicina to 62 graduates. ďˇ Medicine - Development of hospitals San Juan Lazaro hospital the oldest in the far east was founded in 1578. ďˇ Roads and Bridges Among other Spanish contributions: - Arithmetic - Algebra - Geometry - Trigonometry - Physics - Hydrography - Meteorology - Navigation - Pilotage American Period and Post Commonwealth Era - BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT LABORATORIES (1901) - BUREAU OF SCIENCE (1905) - INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE (1946) RA 2067 OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE âSCIENCE ACT OF 1958â. - This was enacted to integrate, coordinate, and intensify scientific and technological research and development and to foster invention including allocation of funds and other purposes. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL WAS ESTABLISHED ON DECEMBER 8, 1933. - Its Mandate (Nrcp) Promotes And Supports Fundamental Or Basic Research For The Continuing Total Improvement Of The Research Capability Of Individual Scientists Or Group Of Scientists; Provides Advice On Problems And Issues Of National Interest; Promotes Scientific And Technological Culture To All Sectors Of Society; And Fosters Linkages With Local And International Scientific Organizations For Enhanced Cooperation In The Development And Sharing Of Information NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL WAS ESTABLISHED IN DECEMBER 8, 1933. - Its Mandate (NRCP) promotes and supports fundamental or basic research for the continuing total improvement of the research capability of individual scientists or group of scientists; provides advice on problems and issues of national interest; promotes scientific and technological culture to all sectors of society; and fosters linkages with local and international scientific organizations for enhanced cooperation in the development and sharing of information. It was during the American Period when Science was inclined towards: - Agriculture - Food Processing - Forestry - Medicine - Pharmacy - NursingCertainly, let's expand on each section in detail so you can learn more from the provided text: # Summary This text aims to explain various aspects related to technology, particularly focusing on a concept known as "Tech Disruption." It explores how technology affects different sectors, outlines the conditions for tech disruption, discusses the industrial revolutions, introduces the laws of disruption, and mentions factors influencing technology choices. ## Concept of Technology **Technology** encompasses a range of elements within organizations. It includes **expertise, equipment, and procedures** used to convert inputs, such as resources or raw materials, into outputs, which can be products or services. This involves various aspects, such as **product design, production techniques, quality assurance measures, human resource development, and management systems**. In essence, technology represents the tools and knowledge used to create and deliver goods or services effectively. ## What is Tech Disruption **Tech Disruption** refers to a phenomenon where smaller companies with limited resources successfully challenge well-established incumbent businesses. This disruption is primarily driven by **technology**, which acts as the catalyst, enabler, or even the sole reason behind the change. The significance of this concept lies in the fact that entrepreneurs must make careful and thoughtful decisions when it comes to adopting and investing in technology. **Why it's Important?** These decisions are crucial because they involve significant investments and will have a substantial impact on a company's ability to create, innovate, and operate its services in a sustainable and cost-effective manner. ## Four Main Impact **Tech Disruption** has four main impacts on businesses and industries: 1. **Shifting Customer Expectations**: As technology evolves, customer expectations change. Companies must adapt to meet these evolving demands to remain competitive. 2. **Enhanced Products Through Data**: Data-driven insights improve the productivity and efficiency of assets, leading to better products and services. 3. **New Partnerships and Collaboration**: Tech disruption encourages companies to form new partnerships and collaborations, recognizing the importance of working together to stay relevant. 4. **Transformation of Operating Models**: Traditional operating models are being transformed into digital models, where technology plays a central role in how businesses operate and deliver value. ## The 11 Macro Sources of Distribution The **11 Macro Sources of Distribution** represent various factors that influence the distribution of resources and opportunities in society. These factors include: 1. **Wealth Distribution**: How wealth is distributed among individuals and entities. 2. **Education**: The availability and quality of education opportunities. 3. **Infrastructure**: The state of infrastructure, such as transportation and communication networks. 4. **Government**: Government policies and regulations that impact resource distribution. 5. **Geopolitics**: Geopolitical factors, such as international relations and conflicts. 6. **Economy**: Economic conditions and trends, including markets and financial systems. 7. **Public Health**: The state of healthcare and public health systems. 8. **Demographics**: Characteristics of the population, such as age and gender. 9. **Environment**: Environmental factors and sustainability concerns. 10. **Media and Telecommunications**: The role of media and communication technologies. 11. **Technology**: Technological advancements and their impact on society. ## When Does Tech Disruption Happen? **Tech Disruption** occurs when specific conditions are met: ### Technology Is Mature Enough - **Technology Accessibility**: Technology must be accessible to a wide range of people and organizations. - **Critical Mass**: It should have reached a critical mass where it can create significant impact. - **Affordability**: Technology must be affordable for businesses to adopt. ### Sector Is Ready For Change - **Tech Infrastructure**: The sector should have the necessary technological infrastructure in place. - **Policy Framework**: A conducive policy framework is essential to support and regulate the use of technology. - **Lack of Disruption**: If the sector is stagnant or facing issues, it becomes ripe for tech disruption. ### Sector + Technology + Timing + Product - **Mature Technology with an Unready Sector**: If technology is mature but the sector is not ready, it can lead to building the wrong product based on incorrect assumptions. - **Unmatured Technology with a Ready Sector**: Conversely, if technology is not matured but the sector is ready, it may take longer to develop the product. ## Ready for Industri 5.0? This section briefly outlines the five industrial revolutions: 1. **Industri 1.0 (1784)**: Marked by mass production assembly lines using electrical power. 2. **Industri 2.0 (1870)**: Introduced mechanization, steam, and water power. 3. **Industri 3.0 (1969)**: Characterized by automated production, computers, IT systems, and robotics. 4. **Industri 4.0 (Present)**: Involves smart factories, autonomous systems, IoT (Internet of Things), and machine learning. 5. **Industri 5.0 (Future)**: Envisions mass customization and cyber-physical cognitive systems. ## Three Laws of Disruption These laws explain the nature of disruption: 1. **Disruption Comes to All**: Disruption is a universal phenomenon; it affects all industries and businesses sooner or later. 2. **Product-Market Fit**: Disruption occurs due to changes in Product-Market Fit, which means aligning a product with its target market effectively. 3. **Methods to Change Product-Market Fit**: To address disruption, a company can change the product, the target market, or influence people's preferences regarding the product. ## The 40% Rule This rule provides a framework for evaluating the fit between a product and its market: - **Value Proposition**: The product should solve customers' problems effectively. - **Channels**: The product should be able to reach customers cost-effectively. - **Monetization**: Customers should be willing to pay for the product. ## PMF Framework: 5 Steps to Product/Market Fit The **PMF (Product/Market Fit) Framework** consists of five steps: 1. **Business Modeling**: Developing a business model that aligns with the market. 2. **Market Validation**: Confirming that there is demand for the product in the market. 3. **Customer Interviews**: Gaining insights from potential customers. 4. **Product Development and Customer Acquisition**: Creating the product and acquiring customers. 5. **Product Analytics**: Using data to determine if the product has achieved Product/Market Fit. ## Factors Determining the Choice of Technology Several factors influence the choice of technology: 1. **Government Policy**: Government regulations and policies can encourage or restrict the adoption of specific technologies. 2. **Available Resources**: The resources, both financial and human, impact the adoption of technology. 3. **Technological Capability**: The organization's technological capabilities influence the choice of technology. 4. **Existing Technological Level**: The current technological state of the industry or organization plays a role. 5. **Institutional Arrangement**: Organizational structures and arrangements affect technology choices. ## Conclusion In conclusion, the text emphasizes the critical role of technology in driving change and disruption in various industries. It highlights the need for informed decision-making when it comes to technology investments, as well as the conditions necessary for tech disruption to occur. Understanding the historical context of industrial revolutions, the laws of disruption, and the factors influencing technology choices is essential in today's fast-paced and tech-driven business environment. Embracing technology disruption is crucial for transforming business models and adapting to evolving market dynamics.MYTH The British helped the Jews displace the native Arab population of Palestine. FACT Herbert Samuel, a British Jew who served as the first High Commissioner of Palestine, placed restrictions on Jewish immigration âin the âinterests of the present populationâ and the âabsorptive capacityâ of the country.â1 The influx of Jewish settlers was said to force the Arab fellahin (native peasants) from their land. This was when less than a million people lived in an area that now supports more than nine million. The British limited the absorptive capacity of Palestine when, in 1921, Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill severed nearly four-fifths of Palestineâsome thirty-five thousand square milesâto create a new Arab entity, Transjordan. As a consolation prize for the Hejaz and Arabia (which are both now Saudi Arabia) going to the Saud family, Churchill rewarded Sharif Husseinâs son Abdullah for his contribution to the war against Turkey by installing him as Transjordanâs emir. The British went further and placed restrictions on Jewish land purchases in what remained of Palestine. By 1949, the British had allotted 87,500 acres of the 187,500 acres of cultivable land to Arabs and only 4,250 acres to Jews. This contradicted Article 6 of the Mandate which stated that âthe Administration of PalestineâŚshall encourage, in cooperation with the Jewish AgencyâŚclose settlement by Jews on the land, including State lands and waste lands not acquired for public purposes.â2 Ultimately, the British admitted that the argument about the countryâs absorptive capacity was specious. The Peel Commission said, âThe heavy immigration in the years 1933â36 would seem to show that the Jews have been able to enlarge the absorptive capacity of the country for Jews.â3 MYTH The British allowed Jews to flood Palestine while Arab immigration was tightly controlled. FACT The British response to Jewish immigration set a precedent of appeasing the Arabs, which was followed for the duration of the Mandate. The British restricted Jewish immigration while allowing Arabs to enter the country freely. Apparently, London did not feel that a flood of Arab immigrants would affect the countryâs âabsorptive capacity.â During World War I, the Jewish population in Palestine declined because of the war, famine, disease, and expulsion by the Turks. In 1915, approximately 83,000 Jews lived in Palestine among 590,000 Muslim and Christian Arabs. According to the 1922 census, the Jewish population was 83,000, while the Arabs numbered 643,000.4 Thus, the Arab population grew exponentially while that of the Jews stagnated. In the mid-1920s, Jewish immigration to Palestine increased primarily because of anti-Jewish economic legislation in Poland and Washingtonâs imposition of restrictive quotas.5 The record number of immigrants in 1935 (see table) was a response to the growing persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany. The British administration considered this number too large, however, so the Jewish Agency was informed that less than one-third of the quota it asked for would be approved in 1936.6 The British gave in further to Arab demands by announcing in the 1939 White Paper that an independent Arab state would be created within ten years and that Jewish immigration was to be limited to 75,000 for the next five years, after which it was to cease altogether. It also forbade land sales to Jews in 95% of the territory of Palestine. The Arabs, nevertheless, rejected the proposal. Jewish Immigration to Palestine7 1919 1,806 1931 4,075 1920 8,223 1932 12,533 1921 8,294 1933 37,337 1922 8,685 1934 45,267 1923 8,175 1935 66,472 1924 13,892 1936 29,595 1925 34,386 1937 10,629 1926 13,855 1938 14,675 1927 3,034 1939 31,195 1928 2,178 1940 10,643 1929 5,249 1941 4,592 1930 4,944 By contrast, throughout the Mandatory period, Arab immigration was unrestricted. In 1930, the Hope Simpson Commission, sent from London to investigate the 1929 Arab riots, said the British practice of ignoring the uncontrolled illegal Arab immigration from Egypt, Transjordan, and Syria had the effect of displacing the prospective Jewish immigrants.8 The British governor of the Sinai from 1922 to 1936 observed, âThis illegal immigration was not only going on from the Sinai, but also from Transjordan and Syria, and it is very difficult to make a case out for the misery of the Arabs if at the same time their compatriots from adjoining states could not be kept from going in to share that misery.â9 The Peel Commission reported in 1937 that the âshortfall of land isâŚdue less to the amount of land acquired by Jews than to the increase in the Arab population.â10 MYTH The British changed their policy to allow Holocaust survivors to settle in Palestine. FACT The gates of Palestine remained closed for the duration of the war, stranding hundreds of thousands of Jews in Europe, many of whom became victims of Hitlerâs âFinal Solution.â After the war, the British refused to allow the survivors of the Nazi nightmare to find sanctuary in Palestine. On June 6, 1946, President Truman urged the British government to relieve the suffering of the Jews confined to displaced persons camps in Europe by immediately accepting 100,000 Jewish immigrants. Britainâs foreign minister Ernest Bevin replied sarcastically that the United States wanted displaced Jews to immigrate to Palestine âbecause they did not want too many of them in New York.â11 Some Jews reached Palestine, many smuggled in on dilapidated ships organized by the Haganah. Between August 1945 and the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948, sixty-five âillegalâ immigrant ships, carrying 69,878 people, arrived from European shores. In August 1946, however, the British began to intern those they caught in camps on Cyprus. Approximately 50,000 people were detained in the camps, and 28,000 remained imprisoned when Israel declared independence.12 MYTH As the Jewish population grew, the plight of the Palestinian Arabs worsened. FACT In July 1921, Hasan Shukri, the mayor of Haifa and president of the Muslim National Associations, sent a telegram to the British government in reaction to a delegation of Palestinians that went to London to try to stop the implementation of the Balfour Declaration. Shukri wrote: We are certain that without Jewish immigration and financial assistance there will be no future development of our country as may be judged from the fact that the towns inhabited in part by Jews such as Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa, and Tiberias are making steady progress while Nablus, Acre, and Nazareth where no Jews reside are steadily declining.13 The Jewish population increased by 470,000 between World War I and World War II, while the non-Jewish population rose by 588,000.14 The permanent Arab population increased by 120% between 1922 and 1947.15 This rapid growth of the Arab population was a result of several factors. One was immigration from neighboring statesâconstituting 37% of the total immigration to pre-state Israelâby Arabs who wanted to take advantage of the higher standard of living the Jews had made possible.16 The Arab population also grew because of the improved living conditions created by the Jews as they drained malarial swamps and brought improved sanitation and health care to the region. Thus, for example, the Muslim infant mortality rate fell from 201 per thousand in 1925 to 94 per thousand in 1945, and life expectancy rose from 37 years in 1926 to 49 in 1943.17 The Arab population increased the most in cities where large Jewish populations had created new economic opportunities. From 1922â1947, the non-Jewish population increased by 290% in Haifa, 131% in Jerusalem, and 158% in Jaffa. The growth in Arab towns was more modest: 42% in Nablus, 78% in Jenin, and 37% in Bethlehem.18 MYTH Jews stole Arab land. FACT Despite the growth in their population, the Arabs continued to assert they were being displaced. From the beginning of World War I, however, part of Palestineâs land was owned by absentee landlords who lived in Cairo, Damascus, and Beirut. About 80% of the Palestinian Arabs were debt-ridden peasants, semi-nomads, and Bedouins.19 Jews went out of their way to avoid purchasing land in areas where Arabs might be displaced. They sought land that was largely uncultivated, swampy, cheap, andâmost importantâwithout tenants. In 1920, Labor Zionist leader David Ben-Gurion expressed his concern about the Arab fellahin, whom he viewed as âthe most important asset of the native population.â He insisted that âunder no circumstances must we touch land belonging to fellahs or worked by them.â Instead, he advocated helping liberate them from their oppressors. âOnly if a fellah leaves his place of settlement,â Ben-Gurion added, âshould we offer to buy his land, at an appropriate price.â20 Jews only began to purchase cultivated land after buying all the uncultivated territory. Many Arabs were willing to sell because of the migration to coastal towns and because they needed money to invest in the citrus industry.21 When John Hope Simpson arrived in Palestine in May 1930, he observed, âThey [the Jews] paid high prices for the land and, in addition, they paid to certain of the occupants of those lands a considerable amount of money which they were not legally bound to pay.â22 In 1931, Lewis French conducted a survey of landlessness for the British government and offered new plots to any Arabs who had been âdispossessed.â British officials received more than 3,000 applications, of which 80% were ruled invalid by the governmentâs legal adviser because the applicants were not landless Arabs. This left only about 600 landless Arabs, 100 of whom accepted the government land offer.23 In April 1936, a new outbreak of Arab attacks on Jews was instigated by local Palestinian leaders who were later joined by Arab volunteers led by a Syrian guerrilla named Fawzi al-Qawuqji, the commander of the Arab Liberation Army. By November, when the British finally sent a new commission headed by Lord Peel to investigate, 89 Jews had been killed and more than 300 wounded.24 The Peel Commissionâs report found that Arab complaints about Jewish land acquisition were baseless. It pointed out that âmuch of the land now carrying orange groves was sand dunes or swamp and uncultivated when it was purchasedâŚThere was at the time of the earlier sales little evidence that the owners possessed either the resources or training needed to develop the land.â25 Moreover, the Commission found the shortage was âdue less to the amount of land acquired by Jews than to the increase in the Arab population.â The report concluded that the presence of Jews in Palestine, along with the work of the British administration, had resulted in higher wages, an improved standard of living, and ample employment opportunities.26 It is made quite clear to all, both by the map drawn up by the Simpson Commission and by another compiled by the Peel Commission, that the Arabs are as prodigal in selling their land as they are in useless wailing and weeping (emphasis in the original). âTransjordanâs king Abdullah27 Even at the height of the Arab revolt in 1938 (which began in April 1936 with the murder of two Jews by Arabs and the subsequent murder of two Arab workers by members of the Jewish underground28), the British high commissioner to Palestine believed the Arab landowners were complaining about sales to Jews to drive up prices for lands they wished to sell. Many Arab landowners had been so terrorized by Arab rebels they decided to leave Palestine and sell their property to the Jews.29 The Jews paid exorbitant prices to wealthy landowners for small tracts of arid land. âIn 1944, Jews paid between $1,000 and $1,100 per acre in Palestine, mostly for arid or semiarid land; in the same year, rich black soil in Iowa was selling for about $110 per acre.â30 By 1947, Jewish holdings in Palestine amounted to about 463,000 acres. Approximately 45,000 were acquired from the mandatory government, 30,000 were bought from various churches, and 387,500 were purchased from Arabs. Analyses of land purchases from 1880 to 1948 show that 73% of Jewish plots were purchased from large landowners, not poor fellahin.31 Many leaders of the Arab nationalist movement, including members of the Muslim Supreme Council, and the mayors of Gaza, Jerusalem, and s sold land to the Jews. Asâad el-Shuqeiri, a Muslim religious scholar and father of Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Ahmed Shuqeiri, took Jewish money for his land. Even King Abdullah leased land to the Jews.32 MYTH The British helped the Palestinians to live peacefully with the Jews. FACT In 1921, Haj Amin el-Husseini first began to organize fedayeen (âone who sacrifices himselfâ) to terrorize Jews. El-Husseini hoped to duplicate the success of Kemal AtatĂźrk in Turkey by driving the Jews out of Palestine just as Kemal had driven the invading Greeks from his country.33 Arab radicals gained influence because the British administration was unwilling to take effective action against them until they began a revolt against British rule. Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, former head of British military intelligence in Cairo, and later chief political officer for Palestine and Syria, wrote in his diary that British officials âincline towards the exclusion of Zionism in Palestine.â The British encouraged the Palestinians to attack the Jews. According to Meinertzhagen, Col. Bertie Harry Waters-Taylor (financial adviser to the military administration in Palestine 1919â23) met with el-Husseini in 1920, a few days before Easter, and told him that âhe had a great opportunity at Easter to show the worldâŚthat Zionism was unpopular not only with the Palestine administration but in Whitehall.â He added that âif disturbances of sufficient violence occurred in Jerusalem at Easter, both General [Louis] Bols [chief administrator in Palestine, 1919â20] and General [Edmund] Allenby [commander of the Egyptian force, 1917â19, then high commissioner of Egypt] would advocate the abandonment of the Jewish Home. Waters-Taylor explained that freedom could only be attained through violence.â34 El-Husseini took the colonelâs advice and instigated a riot. The British withdrew their troops and the Jewish police from Jerusalem, allowing the Arab mob to attack Jews and loot their shops. Because of el-Husseiniâs overt role in instigating the pogrom, the British decided to arrest him. He escaped, however, and was sentenced to ten years in absentia. A year later, some British Arabists convinced High Commissioner Herbert Samuel to pardon el-Husseini and to appoint him Mufti (a cleric in charge of Jerusalemâs Islamic holy places). By contrast, Vladimir Jabotinsky and several followers, who had formed a Jewish defense organization during the unrest, were sentenced to 15 years. They were released a few months later.35 Samuel met with el-Husseini on April 11, 1921, and was assured âthat the influences of his family and himself would be devoted to tranquility.â Three weeks later, riots in Jaffa and elsewhere left forty-three Jews dead.36 El-Husseini consolidated his power and took control of all Muslim religious funds in Palestine. He used his authority to gain control over the mosques, the schools, and the courts. No Arab could reach an influential position without being loyal to the Mufti. His power was so absolute that âno Muslim in Palestine could be born or die without being beholden to Haj Amin.â37 The Muftiâs henchmen also ensured he would have no opposition by systematically killing Palestinians who discussed cooperation with the Jews from rival clans. As the spokesman for Palestinian Arabs, el-Husseini did not ask that Britain grant them independence. On the contrary, in a letter to Churchill in 1921, he demanded that Palestine be reunited with Syria and Transjordan.38 The Arabs found rioting an effective political tool because of the lax British response toward violence against Jews. In handling each riot, the British prevented Jews from protecting themselves but made little effort to prevent the Arabs from attacking them. After each outbreak, a British commission of inquiry would try to establish the cause of the violence. The conclusion was always the same: The Arabs feared being displaced by the Jews. To stop the rioting, the commissions would recommend that restrictions be placed on Jewish immigration. Thus, the Arabs learned they could always stop the influx of Jews by staging riots. This cycle began after a series of riots in May 1921. After failing to protect the Jewish community from Arab mobs, the British appointed the Haycraft Commission to investigate the cause of the violence. Although the panel concluded the Arabs had been the aggressors, it rationalized the cause of the attack: âThe fundamental cause of the riots was a feeling among the Arabs of discontent with, and hostility to, the Jews, due to political and economic causes, and connected with Jewish immigration, and with their conception of Zionist policy.â39 One consequence of the violence was the institution of a temporary ban on Jewish immigration. The Arab fear of being âdisplacedâ or âdominatedâ was an excuse for their attacks on Jewish settlers. Note, too, that these riots were not inspired by nationalistic fervorânationalists would have rebelled against their British overlordsâthey were motivated by economics, the radical Islamic views of the Mufti, and misunderstanding. In 1929, Arab provocateurs convinced the masses that the Jews had designs on the Temple Mount (a tactic still used today to incite violence). A Jewish religious observance at the Western Wall, which forms a part of the Temple Mount, served as a pretext for rioting by Arabs against Jews, which spilled out of Jerusalem into other villages and towns, including Safed and Hebron. Again, the British administration made no effort to prevent the violence, and, after it began, the British did nothing to protect the Jewish population. After six days of mayhem, the British finally brought troops in to quell the disturbance. By this time, most of Hebronâs Jews had fled or been killed. In all, 133 Jews were killed and 399 wounded in the pogroms.40 After the riots, the British ordered an investigation, resulting in the Passfield White Paper. It said the âimmigration, land purchase and settlement policies of the Zionist Organization were already or were likely to become, prejudicial to Arab interests. It understood the mandatory governmentâs obligation to the non-Jewish community to mean that Palestineâs resources must be primarily reserved for the growing Arab economy.â41 This meant it was necessary to restrict Jewish immigration and land purchases. MYTH The Mufti was not a Nazi collaborator. FACT In 1941, Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem, fled to Germany and met with Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, Joachim Von Ribbentrop, and other Nazi leaders. He wanted to persuade them to extend the Nazisâ anti-Jewish program to the Arab world. The Mufti sent Hitler fifteen drafts of declarations he wanted Germany and Italy to make concerning the Middle East. One called on the two countries to declare the illegality of the Jewish home in Palestine. He also asked the Axis powers to âaccord to Palestine and to other Arab countries the right to solve the problem of the Jewish elements in Palestine and other Arab countries in accordance with the interest of the Arabs, and by the same method that the question is now being settled in the Axis countries.â42 In November 1941, the Mufti met with Hitler, who told him the Jews were his foremost enemy. The Nazi dictator rebuffed the Muftiâs requests for a declaration in support of the Arabs, however, telling him the time was not right. The Mufti offered Hitler his âthanks for the sympathy which he had always shown for the Arab and especially Palestinian cause, and to which he had given clear expression in his public speeches.â He added, âThe Arabs were Germanyâs natural friends because they had the same enemies as had Germany, namelyâŚthe Jews.â Hitler told the Mufti he opposed the creation of a Jewish state and that Germanyâs objective was destroying the Jewish element in the Arab sphere.43 In 1945, Yugoslavia sought to indict the Mufti as a war criminal for his role in recruiting twenty thousand Muslim volunteers for the SS, who participated in the killing of Jews in Croatia and Hungary. He escaped French detention in 1946, however, and continued his fight against the Jews from Cairo and later Beirut where he died in 1974. MYTH The bombing of the King David Hotel was part of a deliberate terror campaign against civilians. FACT British troops seized the Jewish Agency compound on June 29, 1946, and confiscated large quantities of documents. At about the same time, more than 2,500 Jews from all over Palestine were arrested. A week later, news of a massacre of 40 Jews in a pogrom in Poland reminded the Jews of Palestine how Britainâs restrictive immigration policy had condemned thousands to death. In response to the British provocations, and a desire to demonstrate that the Jewsâ spirit could not be broken, the United Resistance Movement planned to bomb the King David Hotel, which housed the British military command and the Criminal Investigation Division in addition to hotel guests. The Haganah pulled out of the plot and left it up to the Irgun. Irgun leader Menachem Begin stressed his desire to avoid civilian casualties and the plan was to warn the British so they would evacuate the building before it was blown up. Three telephone calls were placed on July 22, 1946, one to the hotel, another to the French Consulate, and a third to the Palestine Post warning that explosives in the King David Hotel would soon be detonated. The call to the hotel was received and ignored. Begin quotes one British official who supposedly refused to evacuate the building, saying, âWe donât take orders from the Jews.â44 As a result, when the bombs exploded, the casualty toll was high: 91 killed and 45 injured. Among the casualties were 15 Jews. Few people in the main part of the hotel were injured.45 For decades, the British denied they had been warned. In 1979, however, a member of the British Parliament provided the testimony of a British officer who heard other officers in the King David Hotel bar joking about a Zionist threat to the headquarters. The officer who overheard the conversation immediately left the hotel and survived.46 In contrast to Arab attacks against Jews, which Arab leaders hailed as heroic actions, the Jewish National Council denounced the bombing of the King David.47 1 Aharon Cohen, Israel and the Arab World, (NY: Funk and Wagnalls, 1970), p. 172HEALTH EDUCATION 3. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: Students should able to know about_______ 1. definition of health education 2. aims of health education 3. objectives of health education 4. principles of health education 5. scope of health education 6. planning of health education 7. steps in planning health education 8. levels of health education 9. doctors s responsibility 4. INTRODUCTION: Health education is a term frequently used by health care professional. its aims at individual and community health. Health education is the translation of what is known about health into desirable individual and community behaviour pattern by means of an education process. Definition: âA process aimed at encouraging people to want to be healthy , to know how to stay healthy, to do what they can individually and collectively to maintain health And seek help when neededâ. OBJECTIVES - To inform people or disseminate scientific knowledge about prevention of disease and promotion of health - To motivate people to change their habits and lifestyle that are harmful to their health also motivate people to adopt habits and ways of living conducive to healthy living. - To guide the people who need help to adapt and maintain healthy practices and lifestyle by showing proper community resources. --- PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION - Credibility Of Message: It is the degree to which the message to be communicated is perceived as trustworthy by the receiver. - Creating interest among participants: It is a psychological principle that people are unlikely to listen to things that are not of their interest. If a health programme is based on the felt needs, people will participate in the programme willingly. - Motivating the participants: Motivation is like a petrol engine that drives the mental engine. It is the fundamental desire in every person to learn. Motivation is contagious; one motivated person may spread motivation throughout the group. 13. - Enhance comprehension of content: It means health education should be based on the level of understanding, education and literacy of people at whom the teaching is directed. Teaching should be within the mental capacity of the audience. - Ensure reinforcement: Repetition at intervals is necessary to promote learning. Without reinforcement and feedback, students can go back to the pre-awareness stage. - Encourage active participation: Health education should aim at encouraging people to work actively with health workers and others in identifying their own health problems and also in developing solutions. 14. - Learning by doing: Teaching is effective when individuals actively participate in health education. Learning becomes active and quicker if the individuals are made active physically as well as psychologically. - Known to unknown: The people in a community know something and the health educator enlarges this knowledge. If the health educator links new knowledge with the old knowledge, it can enhance learning. - Maintaining good human relations: Sharing of information, ideas and feelings happens most easily between people who have a good relationship. 15. - Setting an example: The health educators should set a good example in the topic they are dealing with as it fosters better understanding. - Regular feedback: Feedback is one of the key concepts of the system approach. The health educator can modify the elements of the system in light of the feedback from his audience. For effective communication, feedback is of paramount importance - Efficient leadership: Leaders are agents of change and they can be made use of in health education work. Psychologists have shown and established that we learn best from people we respect and regard. 16. The essential attributes of a leader are as follows - Understands the needs of the community. - Provides proper guidance. - Takes initiative. - Is receptive to the views and suggestions of people. - Identifies himself with the community. Is selfless, honest, impartial, considerate and sincere. - Is easily accessible to people. 17. SCOPE OF HEALTH EDUCATION 1. Nutrition 2. Hygiene 3. Family health 4. Disease prevention and cantrol 5. Psychological health 6. Prevention of accident 7. Use of health services 8. Human biology 19. - Nutrition: The aim of nutrition education is to guide people to choose optimum and balanced diets, remove prejudices and promote good dietary habits. nutrition education is a major intervention for the prevention of malnutrition, promotion of health and improving the quality of life. 20. - Hygiene: This has two aspects: personal and environmental. Personal: The aim of personal hygiene is to promote standards of personal cleanliness . Environmental: Has two aspects: Domestic and community. All environmental sanitation programmes should include health education 21. - Family health: The family is the first defence as well as the chief reliance for the well-being of its members. One of the main tasks of health education is to promote family self-reliance, especially regarding the family's responsibilities in child bearing, child rearing, self-care and in influencing their children to adopt a healthy lifestyle. 22. - Disease prevention and control: Drugs alone will not solve health problems. Without health education, a person may fall sick again and again from the same disease. Educating the people about the prevention and control of locally endemic diseases is the first of the eight essential activities in primary health care. 23. - Psychological health: Psychological health problem can occur everywhere. There is a tendency to an increase in the prevalence of psychological diseases when there is a change in society from agriculture to an industrial economy and when people move from the warm intimacy of a village. 24. - Prevention of accidents: Accidents are a feature of the complexity of modern life. Accidents can occur in home, road and place of work. The predominant factor in accidents is carelessness that can be tackled by health education. 25. - Use of health services: Many people, particularly in rural areas, do not know what health services are available and many more do not know. There is a communication gap between the public and state health administration in the form of feedback for further improvement of health services. One of the declared aims of health education is to inform people about the health services available in their community. 26. PLANNING FOR HEALTH EDUCATION planning: is the process of making thoughtful and systemic decision about what needs to be done , how it has to be done, by whom And with what sources. 27. Principles of planning health education 1) Focus on actual current needs and context of community: It is important that plans are made with the needs and context of the community in mind. Health education should try to understand what is currently happening in the community one works in. 2) Plan for basic needs and interest of the community: Consider the basic needs and interests of the community. If the local needs and interests are not kept under consideration, the plans may not be effective. 28. 3) Planning with actual beneficiaries of health education: Plan with the people involved in the implementation of an activity. If people are included in planning, they will be more likely to participate and the plan will be more likely to succeed. 4) Identify and use all relevant community resources: It is essential that the health educator identify all the relevant resources that are locally available which could be used for benefit of people receiving the health education. 29. 5) Follow principle of flexibility: Planning should be flexible, not rigid. One should be able to modify the plans when necessary. For example, you would have to change your priorities if a new problem needing an urgent response arose. 6) A realistic plan not hypothetical: The planned activity should be achievable and take into consideration the financial, personal resources available and time constraints. Planning must be realistic; do not plan unachievable activities. 30. Steps in planning health education Planning is a continuous process. It does not just happen at the start of project . Health education must be well planned to actually improve and promote individual, family and community health 31. - Needs assessment: Conducting needs assessment is the first and probably the most important step in any successful planning process. assessment is the process of identifying and understanding the health problems of the community and their possible causes. - Identify priorities: After identifying the needs and resources of the community, the next is to identify their priorities because each community may have several problems but the urgent have to be given top priority in health education. For example: goitre 32. - Set the goals and objectives: In planning the process of health education, setting goals and objectives is the third and most essential step because these goals and objectives serve as consciously thought baseline parameters to be achieved during health education. - Develop strategies: Prior to the implementation of the health education intervention one must plan, develop and evaluate the several alternative strategies to achieve the set goals and objectives of health education because each problem and target community is quite unique. 33. - Implementation: This is the core phase of the health education process which includes carrying out the planned strategies so that the set goals and objectives of health education may be achieved. - Monitor and evaluation: This is the final step of the planning process of health education where continuous monitoring as well as end evaluation is carried out to ensure the degree to which stated goals and objectives have been achieved. 34. LEVELS/APPROACH OF HEALTH EDUCATION 35. INDIVIDUAL LEVEL - Individual Approach: The health education must first create an atmosphere of friendship and allow the individual to talk as much as possible. In this individual teaching we can discuss, argue and persuade the individual to change his behaviour. But by this we can reach to a small population and who come in contact with us. Methods of individual health education 1) Home visit 2) Personal contact/ counselling 3) Personnel letters 36. 1) Home visit: A home visit is one of the best approaches for individual health education because it can become one of the best opportunities for health education with individuals and their families. Home visits are important to understand the real background of families, their living conditions and the environment in which they live. 37. 2) Personal contact/counseling : Personal contacts or counselling (one-to-one communication) is a helping process where one person explicitly and purposefully gives his or her time to assist people explore their situations and act on a solution. After this the counsellor needs to work together with the person to find solutions that are appropriate to their situation. 38. 3) personal letters: Personal letters may also be used for individual health education, where health educators may get an opportunity to dispatch letters or printed education material to the people in a target community. 39. GROUP LEVEL Group health education may be useful way to deliver health education massages in efficient manner. A well organized group permits sharing of experiences and skills so that people are able to learn from each other. 40. Methods of group discussion 1)Lecture method: (Chalk & Talk ) A lecture may be defined as carefully prepared oral presentation of facts organized thoughts and ideas by a qualified person. The group should not be more than 30 and talk should not exceed 15-20 minutes. By using suitable audiovisual aids. 2) Group discussion: A group is an aggregation of people interacting in a face to face situation. It is a very effective method of health communication. 41. 3) Demonstration: A demonstration is a carefully prepared presentation to show how to perform a skill. This procedure is carried out step by step before an audience. 4) Panel discussion: In a panel discussion 4-8 qualified persons talk about the topic. Sit and discuss a given topic in front of a large group/audience. The chairman opens the meeting. Panel comprises of a chair person and 4-8 speakers. After the main aspect of the subject are explored, the audience is invited to take part. 42. 5) Symposium: It is a series of speeches on a selected subject. Each expert person present it briefly and at the end of session the chair person make a comprehensive summary. Audience are allowed to raise question. 6) Workshops : It consists of series of meetings usually 4 or more with emphasis on an individual work, within the group and with the help of consultants and response personnel. 7) Role play: This is a brief acting out of an actual situation for the benefit of the audience for better understanding. 43. 8) Conference and seminars: This programmes are usually held on a regional, state/national level. Where several experts from different disciplines meet to deliberate on a particular theme, to appraise others of latest knowledge and research in a particular field. 9) Open forum: It refers to the public meeting which are held for various purposes in the community, for example: gram sabha 44. COMMUNITY LEVEL It is meant for a defined community and is not only to create awareness but also to help people understand their health problems and needs, find alternatives solutions to their problems and needs , implement them, evaluate and get feedback and accordingly do the needful. For health education at the community level, it is better to approach local leaders who are influential and who have the peopleâs confidence. These may include local officers such as gramsevak, panchayat sarpanch ,police officer or block development officer etc . 45. HOSPITAL LEVEL 1) Health Education in OPD/Outdoor: The patient and his attendants have to spend a lot of time in the outpatient department for health check-up, treatment, registration, diagnosis, admission procedure etc. This period can be utilised for health education. For this, the following means/devices can be used: - Exhibiting pictures, posters, charts, bulletin board and models in the waiting hall. - Arranging group discussion, slide show, or documentary film in a proper place and on a proper topic. - Giving health education on a personal level in the consulting room. This mainly includes nutrition clinic, family planning clinic, psychiatric clinic etc. 46. - Distributing pamphlets. - Arranging street plays or nukkad naatak in the outpatient department or its neighbourhood. 47. 2) Health Education in wards/ IPD: While taking care of the patients the indoor patients, doctors s have the opportunities to educate them. This period can be fully utilised to give health education to the patients. For this the following methods can be effective: - Conversation with the patient and motivating him for change in his behaviour. - Imparting health education by arranging live demonstration for nutrition, treatment, diagnosis etc. - Providing clinical or bedside teaching. - Providing incidental teaching to patient and his attendants. 48. - Presenting examples. To describe the gains of health education in an individual suffering from the same health education in an individual suffering from the same disease and arranging a meeting between the patient and the cured old patients.