8. TEST this! - Yr56 - Unit 1 - Lesson 2 -Q&A

Create me a multiple choice type of test with 4 options on this topic for college level: SEXUAL ORIENTATION • According to the Psychological Association of the Philippines, typically at ages 6 or 8, we experience or develop attraction to other people. By adolescence, we really know who we are attracted to and would experiment through dating and relationships. Everyone’s sexuality is different and deeply personal. Our capacity for emotional and sexual attraction is diverse and complex. FOUR CATEGORIES OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION 1. HETEROSEXUALITY • The attraction to individuals of the opposite sex. 2. HOMOSEXUALITY • The attraction between people who are the same sex. 3. BISEXUALITY • The attraction to individuals of either sex. 4. ASEXUALITY • A term used to describe someone who does not experience sexual attraction toward individuals of any gender. GENDER • Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed. This includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time. • There are many ways through which gender is manifested. As soon as a new baby arrives in the family, adults surrounding the baby manifests their social interpretation of the baby’s sex by the color assigned to the baby. Example: common for the families to buy blue apparels and toys when the baby is a male, as blue is associated with boyhood. • Conversely, female babies are often assigned to color pink, would buy toys and clothes that are color pink which is associated to a girlhood. Remarkably, the moment a baby is born, the name, toys, and apparels are picked by parents and relatives based on their interpretation of the baby’s sex. • Throughout childhood and adolescence, this assignment becomes more complex as the expectations go beyond the kind of clothes worn, but also in terms of how the person must or must not behave.

Chapter 22 Antihypertensive Drugs Hypertension Defined (JNC-8) Pharmacology Overview 7 main categories of drugs to treat HTN Adrenergic drugs (old friend) Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) Diuretics Vasodilators Direct renin inhibitors A. Adrenergic Drugs: 5 Subcategories and where they act A1. Adrenergic neuron blockers (central and peripheral)- we won’t talk about this A2. Alpha1 receptor blockers (peripheral) A3. Alpha2 receptor agonists (central) A4. Beta receptor blockers (peripheral) A5. Combined α and β receptor blockers (peripheral) A2. Peripherally Acting Adrenergic DrugAlpha1 Blockers (we’ve met these) Doxazosin, prazosin, alfuzosin Block alpha1-receptors which causes BP to decrease Reduces peripheral vascular resistance and BP by dilating both arterial and venous blood vessels Main Use: benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) Alpha1 Blockers REMEMBER Tamsulosin (Flomax)* is an α1 blocker BUT *Tamsulosin is not used to control BP, just for BPH. A3. Centrally Acting Adrenergic DrugsAlpha 2 agonist Clonidine and methyldopa 1- Stimulate alpha2-adrenergic receptors. in the brain Decreases sympathetic outflow from the CNS which decreases NE production 2. Stimulate alpha2-adrenergic receptors in kidneys remember alpha 2 opposes alpha 1 Dilates peripheral blood vessels → lowers peripheral resistance → Results in decreased BP So ….Clonidine (Catapres) Used primarily for its ability to decrease blood pressure in an urgent setting Also use in opioid withdrawal as previously discussed Oral (multiple times a day), and topical patch formulations Do not stop abruptly as it may lead to rebound hypertension In reality, Clonidine and methyldopa Not prescribed as first-line home antiHTN drugs High incidence of unwanted adverse effects: orthostatic hypotension, fatigue, and dizziness MIGHT be uses as adjunct drugs after other drugs have failed, in conjunction with other antiHTN such as diuretics A4. Adrenergic Drugs Selective Beta 1 Blockers Metoprolol, Atenolol Reduction of HR through β1 receptor blockade (remember adrenergic blocking of this receptor???) HR results in BP Cause reduced secretion of renin = BP A4. Adrenergic Drugs Selective Beta1 Blockers Nebivolol (Bystolic) Uses: hypertension and HF Action: blocks β1 receptors and produces vasodilatation, which results in a decrease in SVR High doses loses selectivity and blocks both β1 and β2 Less sexual dysfunction All BB- Do not stop abruptly; must be tapered over 1 to 2 weeks A4. Adrenergic Drugs NONSelective Beta Blockers Propranolol Acts equally on β1 and β2 Other uses include situational anxiety associated with public speaking, test taking As mentioned on previous slide, nebivolol at high doses becomes beta nonselective A5. Dual-Action Adrenergic Drugs α1 and β Receptor Blockers Dual antihypertensive effects of reduction in heart rate (beta1 receptor blockade) and vasodilation (alpha1 receptor blockade) Examples are carvedilol (common) and labetalol (not as common) A5. Dual-Action Adrenergic Drugs α1 and β Receptor Blockers Carvedilol (Coreg) Widely used drug that is well tolerated Uses: HTN, mild to moderate HF in conjunction with digoxin, diuretics, and ACE inhibitors Contraindications: severe bradycardia or unstable HF, bronchospastic conditions such as asthma, and various cardiac conduction problems Adrenergic Drugs Indications - HTN But also for Glaucoma (topical) BPH: doxazosin, prazosin, and terazosin (2 for 1) Management of severe HF when used with cardiac glycosides and diuretics Contraindications Acute HF- have to stabilize first MOAIs- yeah doesn’t everything interact with MAOIs? Peptic ulcers Severe liver/kidney disease Asthma (with beta blockers) Adrenergic Drugs: Adverse Effects Orthostatic hypotension 1st-dose syncope Rebound hypertension with abrupt discontinuation Most common: Dry mouth, drowsiness, constipation, sedation Interactions- always check for specific drug interactions Can cause additive CNS depression with alcohol, benzodiazepines, opioids Question #1 When administering an alpha-adrenergic drug for hypertension, it is most important for the nurse to assess the patient for the development of what response? Hypotension Hyperkalemia Oliguria Respiratory distress Answer A Hypotension This is a key point in patient education These drugs have strong vasodilating properties and may cause severe hypotension, especially at the beginning of therapy. B. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitorsaka ACE Inhibitors or ACEi Large group of safe and effective drugs Currently are 10 ACEi Often used as first-line drugs for HF and hypertension May be combined with a thiazide diuretic, loop diuretic, or Calcium Channel Blocker (CCB) You need to understand the basics ACE Inhibitors: Review RAAS ACE converts angiotensin I, formed through the action of renin, to angiotensin II Angiotensin 2 is a potent vasoconstrictor and also induces aldosterone secretion by the adrenal glands Aldosterone stimulates sodium resorption (H20 follows Na Both act to raise BP which causes kidneys to reduce renin production ACEi= Great drug to treat HTN BUT contraindicated in pregnancy (2nd,3rd trimester due to fetal renal damage) and breastfeeding first few weeks after birth B. ACE Inhibitors - PRIL Lisinopril (Prinivil) super common, often the 1st drug Enalapril (Vasotec) also common Captopril (Capoten) great if liver disease present Benazepril (Lotensin) Fosinopril (Monopril) Perindopril (Aceon) Quinapril (Accupril) Ramipril (Altace) Trandolapril (Mavik) Primary Effects of the ACE Inhibitors Prevent Na (and H2O) resorption by inhibiting aldosterone secretion (volume reduction) (GO BACK TO RAAS DIAGRAM) blood volume decreases work of the heart preload, or the left ventricular end-diastolic volume which is important in HF ACE SUMMARY OF ACTIVITY 1) Prevent vasoconstriction caused by angiotensin 2 (2) Prevent aldosterone secretion  less sodium and water resorption Cardioprotective Effects of ACEi They slow progression of left ventricular hypertrophy (ventricular remodeling) after MI so considered cardioprotective ACE inhibitors have been shown to decrease morbidity and mortality in patients with HF Renal Protective Effects of ACEi ACE inhibitors: reduce glomerular filtration pressure by volume reduction Cardiovascular drug of choice for patients with diabetes since it helps protect kidneys by reducing pressure. Sometimes used low dose for kidney protection with DM without HTN B. ACEi Enalapril (Vasotec) Only ACEi available in both oral and IV Enalapril IV does not require cardiac monitoring Oral enalapril: prodrug (metabolized in liver) Improves patient’s chances of survival after an MI Reduces the incidence of HF B. ACEi Captopril (Capoten) Uses: prevention of ventricular remodeling after MI; reduce the risk of HF after MI Shortest half-life Must be administered multiple times throughout the day so this limits its use Not a prodrug so good for patient with liver disease Question #2 A patient with diabetes has a new prescription for the ACE inhibitor lisinopril. She questions this order because her provider has never told her that she has hypertension. What is the best explanation for this order? The doctor knows best The patient is confused This medication has cardioprotective properties This medication has a protective effect on the kidneys for patients with diabetes Answer D ACE inhibitors have been shown to have a protective effect on the kidneys because they reduce glomerular filtration pressure. This property makes them the cardiovascular drug of choice for patients with diabetes. Question #3 A patient with a history of pancreatitis and cirrhosis is also being treated for hypertension. Which drug will most likely be ordered for this patient? Clonidine Prazosin Diltiazem Captopril Answer D Captopril Captopril is not a prodrug; therefore, it does not need to be metabolized by the liver to be effective. This is an advantage in patients with liver disease. ACE Inhibitors: Adverse Effects *Dry, nonproductive cough, which reverses when therapy is stopped. This is a class effect Dizziness- Note: First-dose hypotensive effect may occur Headache & Fatigue Possible hyperkalemia ** Angioedema: rare but potentially fatal Not safe in pregnancy-are contraindicated during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy because of increased risk of fetal renal damage C. Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers(ARB) Considered an alternative to ACEi Less likely to cause a dry cough and hyper K+ that is common with ACE inhibitors Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers: Mechanism of Action Go back to RAAS diagram! ARBs affect primarily 2 places 1. Vascular smooth muscle - blocks vasoconstriction 2. Adrenal gland -Selectively blocks the binding of Ang 2 to certain Ang 2 receptors inhibiting secretion of aldosterone Lowers volume retention and BP Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers -ARTAN Losartan (Cozaar)- very common Eprosartan (Teveten) Valsartan (Diovan) Irbesartan (Avapro) Candesartan (Atacand) Olmesartan (Benicar) Telmisartan (Micardis) Azilsartan (Edarbi) C. ARB Losartan (Cozaar) Beneficial in patients with HTN and HF Used with caution in patients with kidney or liver dysfunction and in patients with renal artery stenosis ***Not safe for breastfeeding women and should not be used in pregnancy (Cat C 1st trimester, Cat D 2nd-3rd trimester), potential fetal toxicity Appear to be equally effective for the treatment of hypertension and well tolerated ARBs less likely to cause cough and hyperK+ but can still happen Evidence that ARBs are associated with lower mortality after MI than ACE inhibitors Never take ACEi and ARBs at the same time* 5. Calcium Channel Blockers (CCB) Primary use: HTN, angina, some dysrhythmias Cause smooth muscle relaxation by blocking the binding of calcium to its receptors, preventing muscle contraction Results in: Relaxed blood vessels to the heart Decreased peripheral smooth muscle tone Decreased SVResistance Decreased BP E. Diuretics First-line antiHTN in JNC 8 guidelines Decreases fluid volume The results from diuresis: preload, Peripheral resistance Overall effect  Decreased workload of the heart and decreased BP Thiazide diuretics are the most commonly used diuretics for HTN Ie hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ), chlorthalidone We will discuss diuretics further in the chapter on diuretics F. Vasodilators Directly relax arterial or venous smooth muscle (or both) Results in: Decreased SVR Decreased afterload Peripheral vasodilation Indicated for treatment of HTN May be used in combination with other drugs F. Vasodilators Hydralazine (Apresoline) Orally: routine cases of essential hypertension Injectable: hypertensive emergencies BiDil: specifically indicated as an adjunct for treatment of HF in African-American patients F. Vasodilators Sodium Nitroprusside (Nitropress) *Sodium nitroprusside and IV diazoxide are reserved for the management of hypertensive emergencies. Contraindications: severe HF, known inadequate cerebral perfusion (especially during neurosurgical procedures) F. Vasodilators Adverse Effects Hydralazine: dizziness, headache, tachycardia, edema, dyspnea, N/V/D, vitamin B6 deficiency, rash Sodium nitroprusside: hypotension, bradycardia, decreased platelet aggregation, rash G. Direct Renin Inhibitors Aliskirin (Tekturna) Blocks the RAS pathway at the point of activation. Inhibiting renin production prevents the downstream production of Ang II (potent vasoconstrictor) Adverse effects: N/V, severe hypotension, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia… Contraindicated in patients with DM taking ACEi or ARB Miscellaneous Antihypertensives Eplerenone (Inspra) Newer class of drugs called selective aldosterone blockers (remember RAAS?) Reduces BP by blocking the actions of aldosterone at its corresponding receptors in the kidney, heart, blood vessels, and brain Indications: routine treatment of hypertension and for post-MI HF Contraindicated if serum potassium levels are high (above 5.6 mEq/L) A Special Form of HTNTreatment of Pulmonary Hypertension Sildenafil and Tadalafil Commonly used for erectile dysfunction Used for pulmonary hypertension but with different trade names Sildenafil: Revatio* (Viagra for ED) Tadalafil: Adcirca* (Cialis for ED)

1. [Force] Part A: A student wants to test how friction affects a toy car. She rolls the car across a sheet of sandpaper and then across a sheet of wax paper. Which is the independent (changing) variable? A. The speed of the car B. The type of surface C. The distance traveled D. The size of the car Part B: On which surface will the car likely stop the SOONEST? A. The wax paper B. The sandpaper C. Both will be the same D. Neither surface has friction 2. [Magnets] Which of these is a measurable question for a magnet experiment? A. Are magnets more fun than springs? B. What is the prettiest color for a magnet? C. How many steel paperclips can a bar magnet lift? D. Why were magnets invented? 3. [Earth's Changes] A student observes a statue in a park that has lost its nose and has smooth edges after many years of rain and wind. What process caused this? A. Erosion B. Deposition C. Weathering D. Evaporation 4. [Earth's Changes] When a river reaches the ocean, it slows down and creates a landform called a delta by dropping sand and silt. This "dropping off" is called: A. Weathering B. Deposition C. Condensation D. Friction 5. [Resources] Why is coal considered a nonrenewable resource? A. It can be burned to make electricity. B. It is found deep underground. C. It takes millions of years to form and cannot be replaced quickly. D. It is made from ancient plants. 6. [Conservation] A school replaces all its old lightbulbs with energy-efficient LED bulbs. This is an example of: A. Weathering a resource B. Conserving a resource C. Deposition of energy D. Creating a renewable resource 7. [Aquifers] An aquifer is like a giant underground sponge. What characteristic of the rocks allows them to hold water? A. The rocks are solid and water-proof. B. The rocks are porous, with tiny spaces for water to sit. C. The rocks are magnetic and pull water toward them. D. The rocks are melted into a liquid state. 8. [Water Cycle] On a humid morning, you see dew on the grass even though it didn't rain overnight. Which part of the water cycle formed the dew? A. Evaporation B. Precipitation C. Condensation D. Transpiration 9. [Climate] Which of the following is a description of CLIMATE? A. "It is currently 85 degrees in McAllen." B. "There is a 40% chance of rain this afternoon." C. "South Texas typically has mild winters and very hot summers." D. "The wind is blowing from the North at 10 mph today." 10. [Weather/Climate] A scientist is looking at a chart that shows the total annual rainfall in a city from 1990 to 2020. What is the scientist most likely studying? A. The daily weather forecast B. The climate of the region C. The water cycle of a single pond D. The rate of erosion on a local hill

Comprehension Test: Superbook – Revelation Theme: Forgiveness, Salvation, and God’s Victory 🔹 Remembering (Items 1–4) What mistake did Chris make at the beginning of the episode? A. He lied to his parents B. He started a fire accidentally C. He broke a valuable item D. He skipped school Answer: B Who are the three main characters in the episode? A. Peter, Mary, and John B. Chris, Joy, and Gizmo C. David, Sarah, and Eli D. Paul, Ruth, and Micah Answer: B Where does Superbook transport the children? A. To the Garden of Eden B. To the time of Jesus’ birth C. To the end times D. To the Exodus Answer: C Who receives visions in heaven during the episode? A. Moses B. Apostle Paul C. Apostle John D. King Solomon Answer: C 🔹 Understanding (Items 5–8) Why does Chris believe his mistake is unforgivable? A. He was punished severely B. He hurt someone intentionally C. He fears the consequences are too great D. He doesn’t understand forgiveness Answer: C What does the descent of the New Jerusalem symbolize? A. The end of all prophecy B. The beginning of war C. Eternal life and God’s promise D. The destruction of the earth Answer: C What lesson does Chris learn from his father? A. That mistakes are permanent B. That forgiveness is earned C. That God’s mercy is unconditional D. That punishment is necessary Answer: C What theme is emphasized throughout the episode? A. Justice and revenge B. Power and control C. Forgiveness and salvation D. Wealth and prosperity Answer: C 🔹 Applying (Items 9–12) If a student feels guilty for a mistake, what lesson from the episode could help them? A. Avoid responsibility B. Seek revenge C. Trust in God’s forgiveness D. Hide the truth Answer: C How might Joy’s experience in heaven help her understand God’s plan? A. She sees the consequences of sin B. She learns about ancient history C. She witnesses God’s ultimate victory D. She meets famous prophets Answer: C What action could reflect the message of salvation in daily life? A. Ignoring others’ mistakes B. Offering forgiveness to someone who hurt you C. Avoiding difficult conversations D. Seeking personal gain Answer: B How could Gizmo’s role support the group’s understanding of Revelation? A. By distracting them with jokes B. By translating the visions C. By guiding them through spiritual truths D. By fixing technical problems Answer: C 🔹 Analyzing (Items 13–16) What contrast is shown between Chris’s fear and the final message of the episode? A. Fear leads to punishment; forgiveness leads to peace B. Fear is stronger than faith C. Mistakes are never forgiven D. God ignores human emotions Answer: A Why is the battle between angels and Satan significant? A. It shows the power of war B. It represents the struggle for heaven C. It symbolizes the victory of good over evil D. It predicts future disasters Answer: C What does the episode suggest about the nature of sin? A. It is always punished B. It can be forgiven through God’s mercy C. It is inherited D. It defines a person’s worth Answer: B How do Chris’s emotions evolve throughout the episode? A. From joy to anger B. From guilt to hope C. From confusion to pride D. From fear to rebellion Answer: B 🔹 Evaluating (Items 17–18) Do you agree that no sin is too great for God’s forgiveness? Why might this be important for viewers? A. Yes, it teaches hope and redemption B. No, some sins are unforgivable C. Yes, but only for believers D. No, forgiveness must be earned Answer: A How effective is the use of apocalyptic imagery in teaching moral lessons? A. It confuses young viewers B. It dramatizes the message of salvation C. It distracts from the core message D. It promotes fear Answer: B 🔹 Creating (Items 19–20) If you were to write a reflection based on this episode, what theme would you focus on? A. The importance of punishment B. The beauty of heaven C. The power of forgiveness D. The fear of judgment Answer: C What title would best capture the message of the episode? A. “The Fire Within” B. “Mercy Wins” C. “The End of Days” D. “Judgment and Justice” Answer: B

Aquí tienes un cuestionario para enseñar inglés. Está diseñado para evaluar el nivel de los estudiantes en varias áreas clave del idioma, como vocabulario, gramática, comprensión lectora y habilidades de escritura. Puedes ajustarlo según el nivel de tus estudiantes: ### **Cuestionario de Inglés** --- **Parte 1: Vocabulario** 1. **Escribe el equivalente en inglés de las siguientes palabras:** - Casa - Perro - Feliz - Escuela - Comida 2. **Elige la palabra correcta:** - She is very ____. (smart / smarts) - I like to play ____ football. (the / to) - This is my ____ book. (my / I) 3. **Completa las oraciones con la palabra correcta:** - My father _____ (is / are) a doctor. - I ____ (can / cans) speak three languages. --- **Parte 2: Gramática** 1. **Elige la opción correcta para completar la oración:** - They ____ to the park every Saturday. (go / goes) - She ____ my best friend. (is / are) 2. **Escribe las preguntas correctas para las siguientes respuestas:** - ____ (Yes, I have three brothers.) - ____ (No, I don’t like pizza.) 3. **Pon en la forma correcta del verbo en presente continuo:** - He ____ (study) for his test right now. - They ____ (play) football at the moment. --- **Parte 3: Comprensión Lectora** Lee el siguiente texto y responde a las preguntas. **Texto:** "Maria is a student. She lives in London with her parents. Every day, she goes to school at 8:00 in the morning. She likes reading books and playing the piano in her free time." 1. ¿Dónde vive Maria? 2. ¿A qué hora va Maria a la escuela? 3. ¿Qué le gusta hacer en su tiempo libre? --- **Parte 4: Escritura** 1. **Escribe una breve presentación sobre ti mismo (5-7 oraciones).** - Incluye tu nombre, edad, lo que te gusta hacer, y tu rutina diaria. 2. **Describe tu día favorito de la semana y qué actividades haces en ese día.** --- Este cuestionario cubre una variedad de aspectos importantes para enseñar inglés y puede ser modificado o ampliado según las necesidades y el nivel de los estudiantes.

LESSON 4. Cellular Respiration • Define cellular respiration • Identify the stages of clan respiration You have just learned how the energy from the sun is captured, processed, and stored in the form of glucose. Cellular respiration, another important life process, is the means by which cells release the stored energy in glucose to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The primary goal of this life process is to convert stored energy into usable form, such as ATP, for the cells to carry out their functions. Cellular respiration involves several chemical reactions. The reactions can be summed up in the following equation: C6 H12 O6 + 602 ----- 6 CO₂ +6H₂O + ATP Glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water energy Aerobic respiration reactions, or cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen, can be grouped into three stages glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain (ETC). Stage 1: Glycolysis Glycolysis is the process that breaks down one molecule of 6-C glucose into 3-C pyruvates or pyruvic acids. It also releases four molecules of ATP. This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. The following is the step-by-step process of glycolysis. Take note that several enzymes are involved in this process. 1. The first step of glycolysis requires energy. It can only proceed when the two ATP molecules donate energy to the glucose by transferring a phosphate group with the help of an enzyme, producing glucose 6-phosphate 2. Then, a specific enzyme promotes the rearrangement of the atoms, producing the fructose 6-phosphate. 3. The action of the enzyme in step 2 promotes the transfer of a phosphate group from another ATP molecule, forming fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. 4. The resulting fructose 1,6-bisphosphate molecules, with the help of another enzyme, splits into two molecules, each with three carbon backbones. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. 5. Another important enzyme then rapidly interconverts the molecules of dihydro-xyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. This produces two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) 6. The succeeding step involves another enzyme-mediated action. The hydrogen (H) from PGAL is transferred to the oxidizing agent, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), which forms NADH. A phosphate (P) is also added from the cytosol of the cell to oxidize the two molecules of PGAL, forming two 1.3-bisphosphoglycerate. 7. A phosphate (P) from 1,3-biphosphoglycerate is transferred to ADP to form ATP. This happens for each of the two 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. resulting to a yield of two ATP and two 3-phosphoglycerate molecules. 8. A phosphate is transferred from 3-phosphoglycerate molecules from the third carbon to the second carbon, forming 2-phosphoglycerate molecules A hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl ((OH) group is released, which then combines to form water (H2O). The removal of H2O from 2-phosphoglycerate results in the formation of 2- phosphoglycerate molecules. 9. A hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl ((OH) group is released, which then combines to form water (H2O). The removal of H2O from 2-phosphoglycerate results in the formation of two phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) 10. Phosphate (P) from PEP is transferred to ADP (and forms ATP) and the final product, pyruvic acid. This reaction yields two molecules of pyruvic acid and two ATP molecules In summary, a single glucose molecule that undergoes the process of glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvic acid, four molecules of ATP, two molecules of NADEL and two molecules of H.O. However, only two molecules of ATP are counted as net products since two molecules of ATP are spent throughout the process. Stage II: Krebs Cycle The Krebs cycle, named after its proponent Sir Hans Adolf Krebs, is a cyclical series of enzyme-controlled reactions. This stage of cellular respiration occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. It is sometimes. called the citric acid cycle (CAC) since it produces citric acid. Citric acid contains three carboxyl (COOH) groups; hence, it is also called the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). This requires the pyruvic acids produced during glycolysis. The main function of this cycle is to produce high-energy-yielding molecules, namely, NADH and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH) that will later on be used in the electron transport chain reaction. Figure 6-7. Summary of glycolysis and corresponding products in each reaction presented (See Appendix F on page 285 for an enlarged and complete version of the image.) An initial process is needed for the Krebs cycle to begin. As a pyruvate molecule from glycolysis enters the mitochondrion, it undergoes an important preliminary ate to form acetyl-CoA reaction. Coenzyme-A (COA) combines with pyruvate help of an enzymatic complex. This conversion also produces CO, and NADH. The Krebs cycle is summarized as follows. Take note that several enzymes are involved in this process. 1. The Krebs cycle technically begins when the acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid (OAA), a 4-C molecule, to produce citric acid, a 6-C molecule. 2. With the aid of an enzyme, the citric acid now goes through a series of reactions that releases energy. Water molecule is removed from the citric acid and is returned in a different location. The-OH group is repositioned, forming the molecule isocitrate. 3. Isocitrate is then oxidized, forming the a-ketoglutarate, a 5-C molecule. The byproducts of this reaction are NADH and CO, 4 The a-ketoglutarate loses its CO, and a coenzyme-A is added in its place. The decarboxylation occurs with the help of NAD, which then becomes NADH. The resulting molecule is called succinyl-CoA. 5. Succinyl-CoA is converted into succinate. Also in this reaction, a molecule of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is synthesized. The GTP molecule has similar structure and energy properties to that of ATP and is used by cells the same way. The free phosphate group attacks the succinyl-CoA molecule, which detaches the COA. Then, phosphate is attached to GDP to come up with GTP, similar to the process that occur in ATP synthesis (from ADP to ATP). 6. Two hydrogens are removed from succinate, A molecule of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), a coenzyme similar to NAD, is reduced to FADH, as it takes the hydrogens from the succinate. This reaction produces the fumarate. 7. Fumarate is then converted into malate as the addition of a water molecule is catalyzed. The final reaction is the regeneration of oxaloacetate. The resulting byproduct of this regeneration is NADH Recall that two pyruvate molecules were produced during glycolysis, causing the Krebs cycle to turn twice. Each tuts produces three molecules of NADH, single ATH one FADIH, and the by-product CO, which is exhaled. Stage III: Electron Transport Chain The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of photon pumps on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Electron transport is the last stage of the cellular respiration. In this stage, the energy from NADH and FADH, from the Krebs cycle is transferred to ADP to produce ATP. This process is generally known as oxidative phosphorylation. This energy coupling mechanism in the cell was revealed by the work of Peter stored energy in the form of proton (1) gradient to phosphorylate (add phosphate) ADP and produce ATP. The pumping of hydrogen sons across the inner membrane creates higher concentration ions in the inner membrane than on the outside of the membrane. This chemiosmotic gradient causes the ions to flow back across the membrane where the concentration of ions is lower. ATP synthase lined in the matrix serve as a channel protein, helping the ions to move across the membrane. The chemiosmotic gradient powers the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP, which also occurs in the ATP synthase. After passing through the ETC, the oxygen, being the final hydrogen acceptor, combines with two electrons and two protons, forming a water molecule. Water is a by-product of cellular respiration and is excreted. MINI TEST 6-3 1. Which energy-releasing pathway yields the most ATF in each glucose molecule? 2. Briefly describe the two stages of aerobic respiration that follow glycolysis: (a) Krebs cycle (b) Electron transport chain Anaerobic Respiration Most cells carry out arrobic respiration when oxygen is present. Aerobic respiration is an efficient process that yields a lot of ATP. However, many organisms thrive in mud, marshes, animal gut, canned goods, sewage treatment pond, and deep oceans where oxygen is scarce. Organisms that can live without oxygen are called anaerobes. Cellular respiration that proceeds without the presence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. In the event that the oxygen supply becomes low, aerobic cells also perform fermentation and lactic acid fermentation anaerobic pathways. There are two common anaerobic pathways in these cells, alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. In alcoholic fermentation, ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide are produced by some cells using the pyruvate from glycolysis. Each pyruvate molecule is rearranged into acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, which is eventually released. NADII gives up electrons to acetaldehyde to form ethanol Fermentation is widely used in the industry. Yeast, a fungus used in making bread. can undergo anaerobic respiration. Bakers aux sugar, flour, water, and yeast to form the bread dough. The dough rises due to the carbon dioxide and alcohol released by the yeast cells trapped in air bubbles. Beer and wine manufacturers, we yeast to ferment the sugars in wheat and grape juice, forming alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine. In some cells, glycolysis produces two pyruvates, two NADH molecules, and two ATP molecules. Pyruvate itself becomes the final acceptor of the electrons from the NADH that produces the final product: lactate. Oftentimes, this product is called lactic acid. Human skeletal muscles can carry out fermentation when the blood cannot supply the cells with adequate oxygen during strenuous activities. When lactic acid builds up in the muscles, fatigue, burning sensation, and cramps result. Lactic acid will continue to build up until there is adequate supply of oxygen. Lactic acid is then converted back into pyruvate in the liver. Muscles also restore normal functions. Have you ever wondered why milk or cream turns sour after some time? Bacterial cells that undergo fermentation are responsible in producing lactate that turns the milk sour. These bacteria are used in manufacturing yogurt and sour milk products. Fermentation pathways do not breakdown and utilize the glucose completely. ATP is no longer produced beyond the process of glycolysis. Thus, energy produced is just enough for some single-celled organisms, or the energy can only be used by multicellular organisms for a short period.

1. Flammable materials, like alcohol, should never be dispensed or used near A. an open door. B. an open flame. C. another student. D. a sink. 2. If a laboratory fire erupts, immediately A. notify your instructor. B. run for the fire extinguisher. C. throw water on the fire. D. open the windows. 3. Approved eye protection devices (such as goggles) are worn in the laboratory A. to avoid eye strain. B. to improve your vision. C. only if you don’t have corrective glasses. D. any time chemicals, heat or glassware are used. 4. If you wear contact lenses in the school laboratory, A. take them out before starting the lab. B. you do not have to wear protective goggles. C. advise your science instructor that you wear contact lenses. D. keep the information to yourself. 5. If you do not understand a direction or part of a lab procedure, you should A. figure it out as you do the lab. B. try several methods until something works. C. ask the instructor before proceeding. D. skip it and go on to the next part. 6. After completing an experiment, all chemical wastes should be A. left at your lab station for the next class. B. disposed of according to your instructor’s directions. C. dumped in the sink. D. taken home. 7. If a lab experiment is not completed, you should A. discuss the issue with your instructor. B. sneak in after school and work alone. C. come in during lunch and finish while eating lunch. D. make up some results. 8. You are heating a substance in a test tube. Always point the open end of the tube A. toward yourself. B. toward your lab partner. C. toward another classmate. D. away from all people. Science Laboratory Safety teSt 9. You are heating a piece of glass and now want to pick it up. You should A. use a rag or paper towels. B. pick up the end that looks cooler. C. use tongs. D. pour cold water on it. 10. You have been injured in the laboratory (cut, burn, etc.). First you should A. visit the school nurse after class. B. see a doctor after school. C. tell the science instructor at once. D. apply first aid yourself. 11. When gathering glassware and equipment for an experiment, you should A. read all directions carefully to know what equipment is necessary. B. examine all glassware to check for chips or cracks. C. clean any glassware that appears dirty. D. All of the above. 12. You want to place a piece of glass tubing into a rubber stopper after the tubing has been fire polished and cooled. This is best done by A. lubricating the tubing with water or glycerin. B. using a towel or cotton gloves for protection. C. twisting the tubing and stopper carefully. D. all of the above. 13. Personal eyeglasses provide as much protection as A. a face shield. B. safety glasses. C. splashproof chemical goggles. D. none of the above. 14. Long hair in the laboratory must be A. cut short. B. held away from the experiment with one hand. C. always neatly groomed. D. tied back or kept entirely out of the way with a hair band, hairpins, or other confining device. 15. In a laboratory, the following should not be worn. A. loose clothing. B. dangling jewelry. C. sandals. D. all of the above. 16. The following footwear is best in the laboratory. A. sandals B. open-toed shoes C. closed-toed shoes D. shoes appropriate for the weather3 © 2017 Flinn Scientific, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 17. Horseplay or practical jokes in the laboratory are A. always against the rules. B. okay. C. not dangerous. D. okay if you are working alone. 18. If a piece of equipment is not working properly, stop, turn it off, and tell A. the custodian. B. your lab partner. C. your best friend in the class. D. the science instructor. 19. If an acid is splashed on your skin, wash at once with A. soap. B. oil. C. weak base. D. plenty of water. 20. When you finish working with chemicals, biological specimens, and other lab substances, always A. treat your hands with skin lotion. B. wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water. C. wipe your hands on a towel. D. wipe your hands on your clothes. True—False T F 22. ■ ■ Hot glass looks the same as cold glass. 23. ■ ■ All chemicals in the lab are to be considered dangerous. 24. ■ ■ Return all unused chemicals to their original containers. 25. ■ ■ Work areas should be kept clean and tidy. 26. ■ ■ Pipets are used to measure and dispense small amounts of liquids. You should draw the liquid into the pipet using your mouth. 27. ■ ■ Laboratory work can be started immediately upon entering the laboratory even if the instructor is not yet present. 28. ■ ■ Never remove chemicals or other equipment from the laboratory. T F 29. ■ ■ Chipped or cracked glassware is okay to use. 30. ■ ■ Read all procedures thoroughly before entering the laboratory. 31. ■ ■ All unauthorized experiments are prohibited. 32. ■ ■ You are allowed to enter the chemical preparation/storage area any time you need to get an item. 33. ■ ■ Laboratory aprons should be worn during all lab activities. 34. ■ ■ It’s okay to pick up broken glass with your bare hands as long as the glass is placed in the trash. 35. ■ ■ Never leave a lit burner unattended. 21. Draw a diagram of your science room and label the locations of the following: ■ Fire Blanket ■ Fire Extinguisher(s) ■ Exits ■ Eyewash Station ■ Emergency Shower ■ Closest Fire Alarm Station ■ Waste Disposal Container(s)4 © 2017 Flinn Scientific, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Name: ________________________________________________ Date: ______________________________________________ 1. Flammable materials, like alcohol, should never be dispensed or used near A. an open door. B. an open flame. C. another student. D. a sink. 2. If a laboratory fire erupts, immediately A. notify your instructor. B. run for the fire extinguisher. C. throw water on the fire. D. open the windows. 3. Approved eye protection devices (such as goggles) are worn in the laboratory A. to avoid eye strain. B. to improve your vision. C. only if you don’t have corrective glasses. D. any time chemicals, heat or glassware are used. 4. If you wear contact lenses in the school laboratory, A. take them out before starting the lab. B. you do not have to wear protective goggles. C. advise your science instructor that you wear contact lenses. D. keep the information to yourself. 5. If you do not understand a direction or part of a lab procedure, you should A. figure it out as you do the lab. B. try several methods until something works. C. ask the instructor before proceeding. D. skip it and go on to the next part. 6. After completing an experiment, all chemical wastes should be A. left at your lab station for the next class. B. disposed of according to your instructor’s directions. C. dumped in the sink. D. taken home. 7. If a lab experiment is not completed, you should A. discuss the issue with your instructor. B. sneak in after school and work alone. C. come in during lunch and finish while eating lunch. D. make up some results. 8. You are heating a substance in a test tube. Always point the open end of the tube A. toward yourself. B. toward your lab partner. C. toward another classmate. D. away from all people. Science Laboratory Safety teSt 9. You are heating a piece of glass and now want to pick it up. You should A. use a rag or paper towels. B. pick up the end that looks cooler. C. use tongs. D. pour cold water on it. 10. You have been injured in the laboratory (cut, burn, etc.). First you should A. visit the school nurse after class. B. see a doctor after school. C. tell the science instructor at once. D. apply first aid yourself. 11. When gathering glassware and equipment for an experiment, you should A. read all directions carefully to know what equipment is necessary. B. examine all glassware to check for chips or cracks. C. clean any glassware that appears dirty. D. All of the above. 12. You want to place a piece of glass tubing into a rubber stopper after the tubing has been fire polished and cooled. This is best done by A. lubricating the tubing with water or glycerin. B. using a towel or cotton gloves for protection. C. twisting the tubing and stopper carefully. D. all of the above. 13. Personal eyeglasses provide as much protection as A. a face shield. B. safety glasses. C. splashproof chemical goggles. D. none of the above. 14. Long hair in the laboratory must be A. cut short. B. held away from the experiment with one hand. C. always neatly groomed. D. tied back or kept entirely out of the way with a hair band, hairpins, or other confining device. 15. In a laboratory, the following should not be worn. A. loose clothing. B. dangling jewelry. C. sandals. D. all of the above. 16. The following footwear is best in the laboratory. A. sandals B. open-toed shoes C. closed-toed shoes D. shoes appropriate for the weather5 © 2017 Flinn Scientific, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 17. Horseplay or practical jokes in the laboratory are A. always against the rules. B. okay. C. not dangerous. D. okay if you are working alone. 18. If a piece of equipment is not working properly, stop, turn it off, and tell A. the custodian. B. your lab partner. C. your best friend in the class. D. the science instructor. 19. If an acid is splashed on your skin, wash at once with A. soap. B. oil. C. weak base. D. plenty of water. 20. When you finish working with chemicals, biological specimens, and other lab substances, always A. treat your hands with skin lotion. B. wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water. C. wipe your hands on a towel. D. wipe your hands on your clothes. 21. Draw a diagram of your science room and label the locations of the following: ■ Fire Blanket ■ Fire Extinguisher(s) ■ Exits ■ Eyewash Station ■ Emergency Shower ■ Closest Fire Alarm Station ■ Waste Disposal Container(s) True—False T F 22. ■ ■ Hot glass looks the same as cold glass. 23. ■ ■ All chemicals in the lab are to be considered dangerous. 24. ■ ■ Return all unused chemicals to their original containers. 25. ■ ■ Work areas should be kept clean and tidy. 26. ■ ■ Pipets are used to measure and dispense small amounts of liquids. You should draw the liquid into the pipet using your mouth. 27. ■ ■ Laboratory work can be started immediately upon entering the laboratory even if the instructor is not yet present. 28. ■ ■ Never remove chemicals or other equipment from the laboratory. T F 29. ■ ■ Chipped or cracked glassware is okay to use. 30. ■ ■ Read all procedures thoroughly before entering the laboratory. 31. ■ ■ All unauthorized experiments are prohibited. 32. ■ ■ You are allowed to enter the chemical preparation/storage area any time you need to get an item. 33. ■ ■ Laboratory aprons should be worn during all lab activities. 34. ■ ■ It’s okay to pick up broken glass with your bare hands as long as the glass is placed in the trash. 35. ■ ■ Never leave a lit burner unattended.

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