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A Smooth Flight
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______ the sun set, the temperature began to drop. A) After B) While C) Since She studied all night for her test. ______, she was confident when she walked into class. A) Meanwhile B) As a result C) Before We arrived at the park early. ______, we set up our picnic and waited for the others to arrive. A) First B) Later C) Then The alarm rang loudly. ______, I jumped out of bed and rushed to get ready. A) Before B) Immediately C) Eventually The Wright brothers made their first successful flight in 1903. ______, air travel has advanced significantly. A) Since then B) Before C) Meanwhile Example Paragraphs (Choose the Best Transition Word) Cooking Instructions First, preheat the oven to 375°F. ______, mix the flour, sugar, and baking powder in a large bowl. Next, add the eggs and milk, stirring until smooth. (Options: Then, Before, While) Historical Events The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776. ______, the United States officially became a separate nation from Britain. (Options: As a result, Before, However) Personal Narrative I packed my bags and headed to the airport. ______, I realized I had forgotten my passport at home. (Options: Later, Suddenly, Before) Daily Routine Every morning, I wake up at 6 AM. ______, I brush my teeth and make a cup of coffee. (Options: First, Afterward, Meanwhile) Science Explanation The caterpillar forms a chrysalis. ______, it undergoes metamorphosis and transforms into a butterfly. (Options: Eventually, Meanwhile, Before)Write questions similar to ______ the sun set, the temperature began to drop. A) After B) While C) Since She studied all night for her test. ______, she was confident when she walked into class. A) Meanwhile B) As a result C) Before We arrived at the park early. ______, we set up our picnic and waited for the others to arrive. A) First B) Later C) Then The alarm rang loudly. ______, I jumped out of bed and rushed to get ready. A) Before B) Immediately C) Eventually The Wright brothers made their first successful flight in 1903. ______, air travel has advanced significantly. A) Since then B) Before C) Meanwhile Example Paragraphs (Choose the Best Transition Word) Cooking Instructions First, preheat the oven to 375°F. ______, mix the flour, sugar, and baking powder in a large bowl. Next, add the eggs and milk, stirring until smooth. (Options: Then, Before, While) Historical Events The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776. ______, the United States officially became a separate nation from Britain. (Options: As a result, Before, However) Personal Narrative I packed my bags and headed to the airport. ______, I realized I had forgotten my passport at home. (Options: Later, Suddenly, Before) Daily Routine Every morning, I wake up at 6 AM. ______, I brush my teeth and make a cup of coffee. (Options: First, Afterward, Meanwhile) Science Explanation The caterpillar forms a chrysalis. ______, it undergoes metamorphosis and transforms into a butterfly. (Options: Eventually, Meanwhile, Before)Check for Understanding - Reflection of light off a smooth flat surfaceMake a quiz about this: Clarity and Professionalism: Using capital letters and writing complete sentences enhances clarity and professionalism in your project responses. This ensures that your ideas and arguments are effectively conveyed to your readers or evaluators. Attention to Detail: By adhering to capitalization rules and writing detailed sentences, you demonstrate your attention to detail. This reflects your commitment to presenting your work in a polished and meticulous manner. Respect for the Reader: Using capital letters and complete sentences shows respect for your reader or evaluator. It acknowledges their time and effort in reviewing your project, providing them with a smooth and coherent reading experience. Coherence and Organization: Capital letters and full sentences contribute to organizing and structuring your ideas in a coherent manner. This helps create a logical flow of information, making your project responses more readable and engaging. Developing Essential Communication Skills: By practicing these guidelines, you will develop essential communication skills that are valuable not only for your senior project but also for your future academic and professional endeavors.Pavilions, structures in parks or other places of recreation that are used for shelter Skeptical, having doubt Palette, a particular range, quality or use of color, a color palette of all blues would be an example Ogres, hideous giants in fairy tales that eat people Grotesque, hideous, extremely abnormal appearance Threshold, the place or point of entering or beginning, doorway Flamboyant, marked by strikingly elaborate colorful or showy display or behavior Famine, a long period of time where food is unavailable to eat Linoleum, a smooth floor covering used instead of carpet or tile usually found in bathrooms and kitchens Pesos, Spanish coins or currency used in countries like Mexico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic The endoplasmic reticulum (EN-doh-PLAZ-mik ri-TIK-yuh-luhm), abbre- viated ER, is a system of membranous tubes and sacs, called cisternae (sis-TUHR-nee). The ER functions primarily as an intracellu- lar highway, a path along which molecules move from one part of the cell to another. The amount of ER inside a cell fluctuates, depending on the cell’s activity. There are two types of ER: rough and smooth. The two types of ER are thought to be continuous. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum The rough endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnected, flattened sacs covered with ribosomes, as shown in Figure 4-15. The rough ER produces phospholipids and proteins. Certain types of proteins are made on the rough ER’s ribosomes. These proteins are later exported from the cell or inserted into one of the cell’s own membranes. For example, ribosomes on the rough ER make digestive enzymes, which accumulate inside the endoplasmic retic- ulum. Little sacs or vesicles then pinch off from the ends of the rough ER and store the digestive enzymes until they are released from the cell. Rough ER is most abundant in cells that produce large amounts of protein for export, such as cells in digestive glands and antibody-producing cells. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum The smooth ER lacks ribosomes and thus has a smooth appear- ance. Most cells contain very little smooth ER. Smooth ER builds lipids such as cholesterol. In the ovaries and testes, smooth ER produces the steroid hormones estrogen and testosterone. In skeletal and heart muscle cells, smooth ER releases calcium, which stimulates contraction. Smooth ER is also abundant in liver and kidney cells, where it helps detoxify drugs and poisons. Long-term abuse of alcohol and other drugs causes these cells to produce more smooth ER. Increased amounts of smooth ER in liver cells is one of the factors that can lead to drug tolerance. As Figure 4-15 shows, rough ER and smooth ER form an interconnected network. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. reticulum from the Latin rete, meaning “net”; reticulum means “little net” Word Roots and Origins The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) serves as a site of synthesis for proteins, lipids, and other materials. The dark lines in the photo represent the membranes of the ER, and the narrow lighter areas between the dark lines show the channels and spaces (cisternae) inside the ER. FIGURE 4-15 Smooth ER Ribosomes Rough ER Cisternae 82 CHAPTER 4 GOLGI APPARATUS The Golgi apparatus, shown in Figure 4-16, is another system of flattened, membranous sacs. The sacs nearest the nucleus receive vesicles from the ER containing newly made proteins or lipids. Vesicles travel from one part of the Golgi apparatus to the next and transport substances as they go. The stacked membranes modify the vesicle contents as they move along. The proteins get “address labels” that direct them to various other parts of the cell. During this modification, the Golgi apparatus can add carbohydrate labels to proteins or alter new lipids in various ways. VESICLES Cells contain several types of vesicles, which perform various roles. Vesicles are small, spherically shaped sacs that are surrounded by a single membrane and that are classified by their contents. Vesicles often migrate to and merge with the plasma membrane. As they do, they release their contents to the outside of the cell. Lysosomes Lysosomes (LIE-suh-SOHMZ) are vesicles that bud from the Golgi appa- ratus and that contain digestive enzymes. These enzymes can break down large molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, car- bohydrates, and phospholipids. In the liver, lysosomes break down glycogen in order to release glucose into the bloodstream. Certain white blood cells use lysosomes to break down bacteria. Within a cell, lysosomes digest worn-out organelles in a process called autophagy (aw-TAHF-uh-jee). Lysosomes are also responsible for breaking down cells when it is time for the cells to die. The digestion of damaged or extra cells by the enzymes of their own lysosomes is called autolysis (aw-TAHL-uh-sis). Lysosomes play a very important role in maintaining an organism’s health by destroying cells that are no longer functioning properly. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. The Golgi apparatus modifies many cellular products and prepares them for export. FIGURE 4-16 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 83 Peroxisomes Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes but contain different enzymes and are not produced by the Golgi apparatus. Peroxisomes are abundant in liver and kidney cells, where they neutralize free radicals (oxygen ions that can damage cells) and detoxify alcohol and other drugs. Peroxisomes are named for the hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, they produce when breaking down alco- hol and killing bacteria. Peroxisomes also break down fatty acids, which the mitochondria can then use as an energy source. Other Vesicles Specialized peroxisomes, called glyoxysomes, can be found in the seeds of some plants. They break down stored fats to provide energy for the developing plant embryo. Some cells engulf material by surrounding it with plasma membrane. The resulting pocket buds off to become a vesicle inside the cell. This vesicle is called an endosome. Lysosomes fuse with endosomes and digest the engulfed material. Food vacuoles are vesicles that store nutrients for a cell. Contractile vacuoles are vesicles that can contract and dispose of excess water inside a cell. Protein Synthesis One of the major functions of a cell is the production of protein. The path some proteins take from synthesis to export can be seen in Figure 4-17. In step , proteins are assembled by ribosomes on the rough ER. Then, in step , vesicles transport proteins to the Golgi apparatus. In step , the Golgi modifies proteins and pack- ages them in new vesicles. In step , vesicles release proteins that have destinations outside the cell. In step , vesicles containing enzymes remain inside the cell as lysosomes, peroxisomes, endo- somes, or other types of vesicles. 5 4 3 2 1 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Proteins are assembled by ribosomes on the rough ER. Vesicles carry proteins from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus. Proteins are modified in the Golgi apparatus and enter new vesicles. Some vesicles release their proteins outside the cell. Other vesicles remain in the cell and become lysosomes and other vesicles. NucleusThe History of Chocolate Many people believe that chocolate originally came from Europe. However, chocolate, called the “food of the gods,” was first made in the Americas. The first chocolate was very different from contemporary chocolate. Wild chocolate trees can grow easily in the humid Amazon rainforest. Clusters of flowers growing on these trees turn to seeds. About 20 to 60 cacao beans can be found in the seeds. Cacao beans are the ingredient needed to create sweet, soothing, and delicious chocolate treats. The Mayan and Aztec cultures both thought that chocolate trees were brought from paradise by gods. The Mayans and Aztecs used the beans from this divine tree to create a special beverage with a very pleasant odor. Surprisingly, the Aztecs believed that it would be toxic to women and children. In the 1500s, the Spanish explorer Cortes met the Aztecs. Cortes became quite interested in the plantations where the Aztecs cultivated chocolate trees. When he returned to Europe, he took cacao beans with him. He introduced the people of Spain to the Aztecs’ chocolate beverage. Over the next 100 years or so, kings, queens, and members of the upper class enjoyed drinking chocolate. They enjoyed it even more once they learned to add sugar to the beverage! Soon, chocolate had spread all across Europe. New machines allowed chocolate makers to perfect their products and produce them at a very rapid rate. Preparing the beans in special ways brought out the aroma of chocolate. The beans were combined with condensed milk to give the chocolate a smooth texture. Today, contemporary chocolates with subtle flavors fill the shelves of expensive chocolate shops. The different types of chocolate available today vary widely. True chocolate lovers can tell which is best, though. They will tell you that the flavor of high quality chocolate stays on the palate long after you finish itHow to make a strawberry smooth