Anda 1-2 | Quizalize

1. Apa yang dimaksud dengan prinsip penilaian dalam pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Penentuan standar minimal kelulusan siswa B. Pendekatan yang digunakan untuk mengukur hasil belajar siswa C. Dasar-dasar yang harus dipenuhi dalam melaksanakan penilaian secara adil dan efektif D. Metode yang digunakan guru untuk memberikan tugas kepada siswa Jawaban: C 2. Salah satu prinsip penting dalam penilaian adalah "keseluruhan." Prinsip ini berarti bahwa penilaian harus: A. Dilakukan di akhir periode pembelajaran B. Melibatkan semua aspek yang dipelajari siswa, baik kognitif, afektif, maupun psikomotor C. Hanya mengukur pengetahuan dasar siswa D. Mengutamakan penilaian sikap dan perilaku siswa Jawaban: B 3. Prinsip "objektivitas" dalam penilaian mengacu pada: A. Menggunakan alat penilaian yang tepat dan relevan dengan materi pembelajaran B. Memberikan nilai berdasarkan hasil yang nyata tanpa dipengaruhi faktor lain seperti preferensi pribadi C. Melibatkan seluruh aspek pembelajaran dalam proses penilaian D. Menilai kemampuan siswa secara subyektif sesuai dengan kondisi kelas Jawaban: B 4. Manakah dari berikut ini yang merupakan salah satu prinsip penilaian yang baik dalam pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Penilaian bersifat subyektif sesuai keinginan guru B. Penilaian dilakukan hanya berdasarkan satu aspek keterampilan siswa C. Penilaian dilakukan secara berkelanjutan untuk memantau perkembangan siswa D. Penilaian hanya dilakukan pada akhir semester Jawaban: C 5. Apa yang dimaksud dengan acuan penilaian dalam konteks pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Sistem yang digunakan untuk memberikan umpan balik kepada siswa B. Kriteria atau standar yang digunakan untuk menentukan tingkat pencapaian siswa C. Teknik mengajar yang diterapkan selama proses pembelajaran D. Metode evaluasi lisan dalam menilai kemampuan berbicara siswa Jawaban: B 6. Acuan penilaian yang menggunakan kriteria tertentu sebagai patokan disebut: A. Acuan norma B. Acuan kriteria C. Acuan standar D. Acuan individual Jawaban: B 7. Penilaian yang membandingkan hasil belajar siswa dengan hasil belajar siswa lain dalam satu kelompok disebut: A. Penilaian berbasis kriteria B. Penilaian sumatif C. Penilaian berbasis norma D. Penilaian formatif Jawaban: C 8. Acuan kriteria dalam penilaian berarti bahwa penilaian: A. Menggunakan hasil belajar siswa lain sebagai standar B. Membandingkan pencapaian siswa dengan standar atau tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditentukan C. Hanya menilai aspek kognitif siswa D. Dilakukan secara acak tanpa kriteria tertentu Jawaban: B 9. Prinsip "validitas" dalam penilaian berarti bahwa: A. Instrumen penilaian mengukur apa yang seharusnya diukur B. Penilaian dilakukan berdasarkan standar yang berubah-ubah C. Penilaian dilakukan hanya sekali dalam satu periode belajar D. Hasil penilaian dapat direplikasi oleh guru lain Jawaban: A 10. Salah satu contoh penerapan acuan kriteria dalam penilaian Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia adalah: A. Membandingkan nilai siswa dengan nilai rata-rata kelas B. Menggunakan rubrik penilaian untuk menilai esai siswa berdasarkan standar tertentu C. Memberikan nilai berdasarkan partisipasi siswa selama pembelajaran D. Memberikan nilai akhir berdasarkan intuisi guru Jawaban: B Semoga soal-soal ini sesuai dengan kebutuhan Anda! Apakah ada pe

Yerli Malı ve Zaman Yolculuğu Bölüm 1: Esrarengiz Sandık (1000 kelime) Defne, dördüncü sınıfa giden, tarih ve bilim meraklısı bir kız çocuğuydu. Özellikle geçmişe yolculuk yapmayı, atalarının nasıl yaşadığını görmeyi hayal ederdi. Aralık ayının ortalarında, okulda Yerli Malı Haftası kutlanıyordu. Defne, öğretmeninin yerli malı kullanmanın önemini anlattığını duymuştu ama bu konu ona biraz sıkıcı ve eski moda gelmişti. “Şimdi kim yerli malı ile uğraşır ki?” diye düşünüyordu. Bir gün, tavan arasında eski eşyaların arasında gezinirken, tozlu bir sandık buldu. Sandığın üzerinde garip semboller ve eski bir dilde yazılar vardı. Merakla sandığı açtı. İçerisinde eski bir defter, tuhaf bir alet ve üzerinde tarih yazan küçük bir kese vardı. Kesede, eski paralar ve üzerinde "Yerli Malı" yazan bir rozet vardı. Defne, heyecanla defteri açtı ve okumaya başladı. Defter, büyük büyük dedesine aitti ve içinde zaman yolculuğu ile ilgili bilgiler, çizimler ve formüller vardı! Defne, büyük büyük dedesinin zaman yolculuğu yapabildiğine inanamıyordu. Defterdeki çizimlere bakılırsa, elindeki alet de bir zaman yolculuğu cihazıydı. Acaba hala çalışıyor muydu? Tarih yazan keseyi açtı ve içindeki paraları inceledi. Hepsi Osmanlı dönemine ait paralarmış. Rozeti eline aldı, parlak ve gurur verici bir görüntüsü vardı. Defne, o anda büyük büyük dedesinin izinden gitmeye, zaman yolculuğu yaparak yerli malı haftasının geçmişte nasıl kutlandığını görmeye karar verdi. Bölüm 2: Osmanlı Döneminde Yerli Malı (1500 kelime) Defne, cihazın üzerindeki düğmelere basarak tarihi ayarladı ve kendini bir anda bambaşka bir yerde buldu. Etrafında ahşap evler, dar sokaklar ve Osmanlı kıyafetleri giymiş insanlar vardı. Bir pazaryerindeydi ve tezgahlar rengarenk kumaşlar, el yapımı takılar, bakır kaplar ve seramiklerle doluydu. İnsanlar, birbirleriyle selamlaşıyor, alışveriş yapıyor ve gülümsüyorlardı. Defne, hayranlıkla etrafı inceliyordu. Bir tezgahın önünde duran yaşlı bir adam, Defne'nin meraklı bakışlarını fark etti. "Hoş geldin kızım," dedi gülümseyerek. "Ne arıyorsun?" Defne, biraz çekinerek, "Ben... ben gelecekten geldim," dedi. "Yerli Malı Haftası'nı araştırıyorum." Yaşlı adam şaşırdı ama gülümsemesi yüzünden eksik olmadı. "Öyle mi?" dedi. "O halde doğru yerdesin. Burada her şey yerli malı. Kendi ürettiğimiz, kendi emeğimizle yaptığımız ürünler." Defne, tezgahlardaki ürünlere daha dikkatli baktı. El dokuması halılar, işlemeli yazmalar, ahşap oymalar... Her şey özenle ve sevgiyle yapılmış gibiydi. "Peki," diye sordu Defne, "Yerli Malı Haftası'nı nasıl kutluyorsunuz?" Yaşlı adam, "Haftanın belirli günlerinde, yerli üreticiler ürünlerini sergilerler," diye açıkladı. "İnsanlar da yerli malı kullanmanın önemini hatırlar, yerli ürünleri tercih ederler. Böylece hem kendi esnafımızı destekleriz hem de paramız ülkemizde kalır." Defne, yaşlı adamın anlattıklarını dikkatle dinledi. O zamanlar yerli malı kullanmanın, vatanseverlik ve dayanışma ile yakından ilişkili olduğunu anladı. Pazaryerinde dolaşırken, Defne, bir grup çocuğun oyun oynadığını gördü. Çocuklar, tahtadan yapılmış topaçlar çeviriyor, bez bebeklerle oynuyor, kendi yaptıkları uçurtmaları uçuruyorlardı. Defne, onlara katıldı ve oyunlarına ortak oldu. Çocuklar, Defne'ye kendi yaptıkları oyuncakları ve oyunları anlattılar. Defne, onların yaratıcılığına ve becerikliliğine hayran kaldı. Akşam olduğunda, Defne, misafirperver bir ailenin evinde konuk edildi. Aile, ona yöresel yemekler ikram etti. Yemekler, Defne'nin daha önce hiç tatmadığı kadar lezzetliydi. Aile, ona kendi ürettikleri sebzeleri, meyveleri ve tahılları anlattı. Defne, o gece, yerli malı kullanmanın sadece ekonomik değil, aynı zamanda sağlıklı ve doğal bir yaşam tarzı olduğunu da anladı. Bölüm 3: Cumhuriyet Döneminde Yerli Malı (1500 kelime) Defne, zaman yolculuğu cihazını kullanarak bu sefer Cumhuriyet dönemine gitti. Kendini modern bir şehirde buldu. Sokaklarda arabalar, binalar ve şık giyimli insanlar vardı. Bir okulun bahçesinde, Yerli Malı Haftası kutlaması vardı. Öğrenciler, ellerinde Türk bayrakları ile şarkılar söylüyor, şiirler okuyor ve oyunlar oynuyorlardı. Defne, onlara katıldı ve coşkuyla kutlamaya eşlik etti. Bir öğretmen, Defne'ye yaklaştı ve "Hoş geldin," dedi. "Sen de mi Yerli Malı Haftası'nı kutlamaya geldin?" Defne, "Evet," dedi. "Hem de çok uzaklardan." Öğretmen gülümsedi. "O halde," dedi, "gel seninle sergimizi gezelim." Defne, öğretmenle birlikte sınıfları gezdi. Sınıflarda, öğrencilerin yaptığı yerli malı ürünleri sergileniyordu. Resimler, el işleri, maketler, deneyler... Defne, çocukların yaratıcılığına ve yeteneklerine hayran kaldı. Bir sınıfta, öğrenciler yerli malı ile ilgili bir oyun oynuyorlardı. Oyunda, öğrenciler, yerli malı ürünleri tanımaya ve özelliklerini anlatmaya çalışıyorlardı. Defne de oyuna katıldı ve bildiklerini paylaştı. Başka bir sınıfta, öğrenciler yerli malı ile ilgili şarkılar söylüyorlardı. Defne, şarkıların sözlerine dikkatle kulak verdi. Şarkılarda, yerli malı kullanmanın önemi, ülkemizin kalkınması ve bağımsızlığı vurgulanıyordu. Defne, Cumhuriyet döneminde yerli malı haftasının, milli birlik ve beraberlik duygusunu güçlendirmek, ülke ekonomisine destek olmak ve yerli üretimi teşvik etmek amacıyla kutlandığını anladı. Okuldan ayrılırken, Defne, bir grup öğrencinin sokakta yürüyüş yaptığını gördü. Öğrenciler, ellerinde "Yerli Malı Yurdun Malı, Herkes Onu Kullanmalı" yazılı pankartlar taşıyorlardı. Defne, onlara katıldı ve sloganlar atarak yürüdü. O gün, Defne, yerli malı haftasının sadece bir kutlama değil, aynı zamanda bir bilinçlendirme ve eğitim faaliyeti olduğunu anladı. Bölüm 4: Günümüzde Yerli Malı ve Defne'nin Kararı (1000 kelime) Defne, zaman yolculuğu cihazını kullanarak kendi zamanına geri döndü. Artık yerli malı haftasına bakış açısı tamamen değişmişti. Geçmişte yaptığı yolculuklar, ona yerli malı kullanmanın önemini, tarihsel ve kültürel boyutunu derinlemesine anlama fırsatı vermişti. Okuldaki Yerli Malı Haftası etkinliklerine katılırken, artık daha bilinçli ve ilgiliydi. Öğretmeninin anlattıklarını can kulağıyla dinliyor, arkadaşlarıyla yerli malı hakkında sohbet ediyor, kendi yaptığı yerli malı ürünleri gururla sergiliyordu. Defne, sadece okulda değil, günlük hayatında da yerli malı kullanmaya özen göstermeye başladı. Alışveriş yaparken yerli üretim ürünleri tercih ediyor, ailesine ve arkadaşlarına da yerli malı kullanmanın önemini anlatıyordu. Artık Defne, yerli malı haftasının sadece bir hafta değil, her zaman hatırlanması ve uygulanması gereken bir ilke olduğunu biliyordu. Yerli malı kullanmanın, ülkesine, milletine ve kendisine yaptığı bir yatırım olduğunu anlamıştı. Defne, zaman yolculuğu macerasını ve öğrendiklerini bir deftere yazdı. Bu defteri, ileride kendi çocuklarına ve torunlarına bırakmayı düşündü. Çünkü biliyordu ki, yerli malı bilinci, nesilden nesile aktarılması gereken önemli bir mirasti.

Berikut ringkasan modul ajar terkait surat niaga dalam komunikasi bisnis dengan bahasa yang mudah dipahami oleh siswa SMK: --- ## **Ringkasan Modul Ajar: Surat Niaga dalam Bisnis** ### **1. Apa Itu Surat Niaga?** Surat niaga adalah surat yang digunakan dalam kegiatan bisnis, baik untuk menawarkan barang/jasa, melakukan pemesanan, pengiriman barang, hingga penyelesaian pengaduan. Surat ini penting untuk komunikasi resmi antara perusahaan dengan pelanggan atau mitra bisnis. ### **2. Jenis-Jenis Surat Niaga** 1. **Surat Perkenalan** – Digunakan untuk memperkenalkan produk atau layanan kepada calon pelanggan. 2. **Surat Permintaan Penawaran** – Digunakan oleh calon pembeli untuk meminta informasi harga dan spesifikasi barang. 3. **Surat Penawaran** – Berisi penawaran barang atau jasa dari penjual kepada calon pembeli. 4. **Surat Pesanan** – Digunakan pembeli untuk memesan barang atau jasa tertentu. 5. **Surat Balasan Pesanan** – Dibuat penjual untuk mengonfirmasi pesanan yang telah diterima. 6. **Surat Pemberitahuan Pengiriman Barang** – Memberitahukan bahwa barang telah dikirim. 7. **Surat Pengantar Barang** – Dikirim bersama barang yang dikirim untuk memastikan penerimaan. 8. **Surat Pengiriman Pembayaran** – Digunakan oleh pembeli untuk mengonfirmasi pembayaran pesanan. 9. **Surat Pengaduan (Klaim)** – Digunakan pembeli jika ada masalah dengan pesanan yang diterima. 10. **Surat Penyelesaian Pengaduan** – Dibuat oleh penjual untuk menanggapi surat pengaduan dari pelanggan. ### **3. Bagian-Bagian Surat Niaga** Surat niaga memiliki bagian-bagian penting, seperti: - **Kepala Surat (Kop Surat)** – Berisi informasi perusahaan pengirim surat. - **Tanggal Surat** – Menunjukkan kapan surat dibuat. - **Nomor Surat** – Mempermudah pengarsipan. - **Lampiran** – Jika ada dokumen tambahan. - **Perihal** – Menjelaskan isi utama surat. - **Alamat Tujuan** – Kepada siapa surat dikirim. - **Salam Pembuka** – Kata-kata pembuka sebelum isi surat. - **Isi Surat** – Berisi maksud dan tujuan surat. - **Salam Penutup** – Kata-kata penutup sebelum tanda tangan. - **Nama dan Jabatan Pengirim** – Identitas yang menandatangani surat. ### **4. Cara Menulis Surat Niaga yang Baik** - Gunakan bahasa formal dan sopan. - Tulis dengan jelas dan singkat. - Gunakan format yang rapi sesuai standar bisnis. - Perhatikan ejaan dan tata bahasa. - Cantumkan informasi yang lengkap sesuai keperluan surat. ### **5. Kesimpulan** Surat niaga adalah alat komunikasi resmi dalam dunia bisnis yang digunakan untuk berbagai keperluan, seperti pemesanan, penawaran, dan penyelesaian pengaduan. Menulis surat niaga yang baik akan membantu perusahaan berkomunikasi dengan pelanggan atau mitra bisnis secara profesional. --- Ringkasan ini membantu siswa memahami isi modul dengan bahasa yang lebih sederhana dan mudah dipahami. Apakah Anda ingin menambahkan sesuatu atau mengubahnya? 😊

Bagus, mari saya buatkan soal khusus tentang **Mengenali Unsur Pembentuk Prompt untuk Kecerdasan Artifisial Generatif**. Soal ini bisa digunakan untuk latihan, kuis, atau evaluasi belajar. --- # 📘 Latihan Soal: Mengenali Unsur Pembentuk Prompt untuk Kecerdasan Artifisial Generatif ## 1. Pilihan Ganda 1. Unsur **konteks** dalam sebuah prompt berfungsi untuk… a. Menentukan panjang jawaban AI b. Menjelaskan latar belakang atau tujuan permintaan c. Mengatur gaya bahasa AI d. Membatasi jumlah kata dalam jawaban --- 2. Jika seorang pengguna menulis: *“Bertindaklah sebagai seorang guru sejarah, jelaskan Perang Dunia II dengan bahasa sederhana.”* Unsur yang ditonjolkan dalam prompt tersebut adalah… a. Konteks b. Peran (Role/Persona) c. Format d. Batasan --- 3. Manakah contoh **format output** dalam penyusunan prompt? a. “Tuliskan dalam bentuk tabel perbandingan.” b. “Gunakan bahasa yang mudah dipahami anak SMA.” c. “Jelaskan topik ekonomi global tahun 2025.” d. “Bayangkan Anda seorang penulis fiksi ilmiah.” --- 4. Apa manfaat memberikan **contoh (examples/few-shot prompting)** dalam sebuah prompt? a. Membuat AI lebih cepat memproses jawaban b. Memberi pola agar AI meniru gaya/struktur jawaban yang diinginkan c. Membatasi jumlah kata dalam jawaban d. Mengurangi kesalahan tata bahasa AI --- 5. Prompt berikut mengandung unsur apa? *“Tuliskan ringkasan 200 kata, hindari istilah teknis berlebihan.”* a. Peran dan gaya bahasa b. Instruksi dan batasan c. Konteks dan format d. Format dan contoh --- ## 2. Isian Singkat 1. Sebutkan **tiga unsur penting** dalam menyusun prompt yang baik! 2. Jelaskan apa yang dimaksud dengan **batasan (constraints)** dalam sebuah prompt. 3. Mengapa **konteks** sangat penting untuk menghasilkan jawaban AI yang sesuai? --- ## 3. Soal Praktik 1. Buatlah sebuah prompt untuk AI yang meminta: * Menjelaskan konsep **ekonomi hijau**, * Dalam bentuk **bullet point**, * Dengan gaya bahasa **formal**, * Untuk audiens mahasiswa ekonomi. 2. Susunlah prompt yang mengarahkan AI untuk menulis **puisi pendek tentang bunga mawar** dengan gaya romantis, namun batasi hanya **empat baris**. --- Apakah Anda mau saya buatkan juga **kunci jawaban & pembahasan** untuk soal ini agar lebih lengkap?

In this video we take a look at the 0:02 fetch to code 0:03 execute cycle including its effect on 0:06 the various registers we've previously 0:12 [Music] 0:14 discussed a computer is defined Definition 0:17 as an electronic device that takes an 0:20 input 0:22 processes data 0:25 and delivers output 0:29 in this simple example you can see we're 0:31 taking the input 5 0:35 we're multiplying it by 2 that's our 0:37 process 0:39 and we're outputting 10. 0:44 but this could be way more complex for 0:46 example of a game console 0:48 the input could be the buttons you press 0:50 on a controller 0:53 the processes would then be carried out 0:55 by the console itself 0:59 and the output would be some form of 1:01 update to a monitor 1:02 and sound out for a speaker possibly 1:04 vibration feedback through the 1:06 controller 1:10 to process data a computer follows a set 1:13 of instructions 1:14 known as a computer program 1:18 if we take the lid off a typical desktop 1:20 computer we can identify 1:22 two critical components the memory 1:26 that stores the program and the central 1:29 processing unit or processor 1:31 which is under this large fan and 1:33 carries out the instructions 1:37 a computer carries out its function by 1:40 fetching 1:41 instructions decoding them and then 1:43 executing them 1:44 in a continuous repetitive cycle 1:46 billions of times a second 1:48 let's look at each of these stages in a 1:50 little more detail Fetch 1:53 so let's start with the fetch stage the 1:55 very first thing that happens 1:57 is the program counter is checked as it 2:00 holds the address 2:01 of the next instruction to be executed 2:07 the address stored is then copied into 2:09 the memory address register 2:14 the address is then sent along the 2:16 address bus to main memory 2:18 where it waits to receive a signal from 2:21 the control 2:22 bus so it knows what to do 2:27 as we want to read the data that's 2:29 stored in memory address 2:30 0 0 0 0 the control unit sends 2:34 a read signal along the control bus to 2:36 main memory 2:41 now main memory knows the data needs to 2:44 be read 2:45 the content stored in memory address 000 2:49 can be sent along the data bus to the 2:51 memory data register 2:56 now as we're currently in the process of 2:58 fetching an instruction 3:00 the data received by the memory data 3:03 register gets copied 3:04 into the current instruction register 3:11 the instruction effectively has now been 3:14 fetched from memory 3:16 just before we proceed to the decode 3:18 phase we now 3:19 increment the program counter so that 3:22 the address it contains 3:24 points to the address of the next 3:26 instruction which will need to be 3:30 executed 3:32 the instruction now being held in the 3:33 current instruction register 3:35 is ready to be decoded 3:39 now as we mentioned in the previous 3:41 video the instruction is made up of two 3:43 parts 3:44 we have the op code that's what it is we 3:47 need to do 3:50 and we have the operand what are we 3:53 going to do it to 3:55 now the operand could contain the actual 3:57 data 3:58 or indeed it could contain an address of 4:01 where the data is to be found 4:06 by decoding this instruction we can see 4:08 the operation we need 4:10 is a load operation so we need to load 4:14 the contents of memory location0101 4:18 into the cpus accumulator 4:25 in the exam a simple model will be used 4:27 to describe the 4:29 structure of any given instruction 4:32 you're not going to be expected to 4:34 define how an opcode is made up 4:36 but simply to interpret opcodes in the 4:39 given context of an exam 4:40 question in the example here 4:44 you can see there's a total of 16 4:46 different opcodes available 4:48 and this is because we're using four 4:50 bits for our representation 4:56 so now we've fetched the instruction and 4:59 we've decoded it so we know what we need 5:00 to do 5:01 we're finally ready to execute it 5:05 so we now send address 0101 5:08 to the memory dress register 5:13 now we're in the memory address register 5:15 we can finally send the address 5:18 down the address bus to main memory 5:24 this time we want to read the data 5:26 that's stored in memory 5:28 and so the control unit again sends a 5:30 read signal along the control bus 5:36 so main memories now receive an address 5:38 and a read signal 5:40 so the content stored at memory location 5:43 0101 5:44 can now be sent along the data bus back 5:46 to the cpu 5:47 and into the memory data register 5:54 finally the contents of the memory data 5:56 register are copied to the accumulator 5:59 and this is one of a number of general 6:00 purpose registers found in the cpu 6:04 this first instruction is now complete Branching 6:11 so what does this program actually do 6:14 you should be able to work it through 6:16 carefully and figure it out 6:19 we're now pointing instructions zero 6:21 zero zero one in the program counter 6:23 and we're ready to fetch the second 6:25 instruction 6:27 at the end of this video we're gonna 6:29 provide you with the answer 6:34 so let's talk a second about programs 6:37 that branch 6:40 on the left here we have a very simple 6:42 piece of pseudo code 6:44 line zero says first execute this line 6:46 of code 6:47 line 1 now execute this line and then 6:50 line 2 says 6:52 if the age is greater than 18 then 6:56 we're going to execute lines 3 and 4 6:58 otherwise 6:59 we're going to execute lines six and 7:02 seven 7:03 so this program doesn't necessarily 7:05 follow strictly in sequence from line 7:07 zero through to seven there's a chance 7:10 here the program may branch and jump 7:14 around 7:16 so we're going to pretend that this 7:17 program has been loaded into memory 7:20 each line of code on the left here has 7:23 ended up 7:24 as a location in memory now this is not 7:27 strictly how this would happen in this 7:28 one-to-one way 7:29 but for the purpose of example it's 7:31 absolutely fine 7:35 so the program counter starts by 7:37 pointing to memory address zero 7:39 and we fetch the first instruction 7:41 decode it and execute it 7:44 it then updates and tells us the next 7:47 instruction 7:48 is zero zero zero one because remember 7:50 the program counter is being incremented 7:52 so we fetch it decode it and we execute 7:55 line one of our program 7:59 we then fetch line two which in binary 8:01 is one 8:02 zero 8:06 now at this point depending on what 8:10 happens during the execution 8:11 of line two the program may be required 8:15 to fetch line three from memory or 8:18 line five from memory 8:25 so let's look at how this actually works 8:27 because we've said the program counter 8:28 simply gets incremented 8:31 well in the current instruction register 8:33 we have an instruction with the op code 8:36 0 1 1 0. 8:41 now when we look this up in the decode 8:43 unit we discover that this 8:45 code means branch always 8:51 this replaces the value held in the 8:54 program counter 8:56 with the contents of the operand that's 8:58 the second part of the instruction 9:01 from the current instruction register so 9:03 this case 9:04 one zero zero one 9:09 now when the next fetch cycle begins the 9:12 program counter is obviously checked 9:14 and as its contents have been previously 9:16 updated to a new memory location 9:19 and not simply incremented the program 9:22 effectively is able to jump 9:24 around memory 9:28 so having watched this video you should 9:30 be able to answer the following key 9:32 question 9:33 how does a cpu work 9:39 okay so let's um answer the question we 9:41 posed 9:42 earlier what did that program actually 9:48 do 9:50 so this is the first fetch to code 9:53 execute cycle 9:55 and this is the one that we ran through 9:57 in detail earlier 9:58 it effectively loaded the contents of 10:01 the memory 10:02 stored at location location0101 10:05 into the accumulator in other words 10:08 the dna number 3 is moved 10:11 from memory into the cpu 10:18 we then proceed onto the second fetch 10:20 decode execute cycle 10:23 now this one adds the contents of memory 10:27 located at 0 1 1 0 10:30 to the current contents of the 10:32 accumulator 10:34 so in other words the dna number one 10:38 because that's what's stored at address 10:40 zero one one zero 10:43 is added to the number three that was in 10:45 the accumulator 10:46 the results are stored back over the 10:48 accumulator 10:49 so effectively we've done three plus one 10:53 equals four 10:58 the third fetch to code execute cycle 11:00 stores the contents which are in the 11:02 accumulator 11:03 into memory location zero one one one 11:07 and that's because the op code the first 11:09 part of this current instruction 11:10 zero zero one one is the command to 11:13 store when we look it up in the decoder 11:15 unit 11:16 so in other words the result of the 11:17 previous calculation three plus one 11:19 equals four 11:20 is now written back into main memory 11:28 the fourth fetch decode execute cycle 11:30 outputs the contents of the accumulator 11:33 remember they were copied into main 11:34 memory but they're still held in the 11:35 accumulator 11:37 so in this simple abstraction the number 11:40 four is now 11:41 output to the user so they can see the 11:43 result of the calculation 11:49 the fifth and final fetch code execute 11:51 cycle 11:52 brings a halt to the current program 11:58 so this very simple program which has 12:01 five 12:02 fetch decode execute cycles has 12:04 performed the calculation 12:06 three plus one is then stored the result 12:09 in main memory 12:10 and displayed the result four to the 12:12 user 12:13 and in a high-level language this may 12:15 look something very similar to the 12:17 following two lines of code 12:20 sum variable equals num1 plus num2 12:24 print sum to the user 12:27 so you can start to get an appreciation 12:29 here of how the high level code you 12:32 write actually ends up being fetched 12:34 decoded 12:35 and executed inside a processor 12:38 of course your processor is doing 12:40 billions and billions of these 12:42 operations a second 12:43 which when you think about it is really 12:45 very impressive 12:52 [Music] 13:03 you. make 10 questions for a standerd of a level

Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1− . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2− as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2−) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic mass−atomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2− has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1− . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2− . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2−3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2−3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1− 2− 3− 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO2−3 arsenate, AsO3−3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrO−3 chromate, CrO2−4 phosphite, PO3−3 chlorate, ClO−3 dichromate, Cr2O2−7 phosphate, PO3−4 chlorite, ClO−2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4 cyanide, CN− oxalate, C2O2−4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO−4 peroxide, O2−2 hydrogen carbonate, HCO−3 silicate, SiO2−3 hydrogen sulfate, HSO−4 sulfate, SO2−4 hydrogen sulfide, HS− sulfite, SO2−3 hydroxide, OH− hypochlorite, ClO− nitrate, NO−3 nitrite, NO−2 perchlorate, ClO−4 permanganate, MnO−4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO−3) and nitrite (NO−2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClO− , hypochlorite ClO−2 , chlorite ClO−3 , chlorate ClO−4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.

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