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Anda 3-1
Quiz by Kelly Mosier
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1. Apa yang dimaksud dengan prinsip penilaian dalam pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Penentuan standar minimal kelulusan siswa B. Pendekatan yang digunakan untuk mengukur hasil belajar siswa C. Dasar-dasar yang harus dipenuhi dalam melaksanakan penilaian secara adil dan efektif D. Metode yang digunakan guru untuk memberikan tugas kepada siswa Jawaban: C 2. Salah satu prinsip penting dalam penilaian adalah "keseluruhan." Prinsip ini berarti bahwa penilaian harus: A. Dilakukan di akhir periode pembelajaran B. Melibatkan semua aspek yang dipelajari siswa, baik kognitif, afektif, maupun psikomotor C. Hanya mengukur pengetahuan dasar siswa D. Mengutamakan penilaian sikap dan perilaku siswa Jawaban: B 3. Prinsip "objektivitas" dalam penilaian mengacu pada: A. Menggunakan alat penilaian yang tepat dan relevan dengan materi pembelajaran B. Memberikan nilai berdasarkan hasil yang nyata tanpa dipengaruhi faktor lain seperti preferensi pribadi C. Melibatkan seluruh aspek pembelajaran dalam proses penilaian D. Menilai kemampuan siswa secara subyektif sesuai dengan kondisi kelas Jawaban: B 4. Manakah dari berikut ini yang merupakan salah satu prinsip penilaian yang baik dalam pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Penilaian bersifat subyektif sesuai keinginan guru B. Penilaian dilakukan hanya berdasarkan satu aspek keterampilan siswa C. Penilaian dilakukan secara berkelanjutan untuk memantau perkembangan siswa D. Penilaian hanya dilakukan pada akhir semester Jawaban: C 5. Apa yang dimaksud dengan acuan penilaian dalam konteks pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Sistem yang digunakan untuk memberikan umpan balik kepada siswa B. Kriteria atau standar yang digunakan untuk menentukan tingkat pencapaian siswa C. Teknik mengajar yang diterapkan selama proses pembelajaran D. Metode evaluasi lisan dalam menilai kemampuan berbicara siswa Jawaban: B 6. Acuan penilaian yang menggunakan kriteria tertentu sebagai patokan disebut: A. Acuan norma B. Acuan kriteria C. Acuan standar D. Acuan individual Jawaban: B 7. Penilaian yang membandingkan hasil belajar siswa dengan hasil belajar siswa lain dalam satu kelompok disebut: A. Penilaian berbasis kriteria B. Penilaian sumatif C. Penilaian berbasis norma D. Penilaian formatif Jawaban: C 8. Acuan kriteria dalam penilaian berarti bahwa penilaian: A. Menggunakan hasil belajar siswa lain sebagai standar B. Membandingkan pencapaian siswa dengan standar atau tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditentukan C. Hanya menilai aspek kognitif siswa D. Dilakukan secara acak tanpa kriteria tertentu Jawaban: B 9. Prinsip "validitas" dalam penilaian berarti bahwa: A. Instrumen penilaian mengukur apa yang seharusnya diukur B. Penilaian dilakukan berdasarkan standar yang berubah-ubah C. Penilaian dilakukan hanya sekali dalam satu periode belajar D. Hasil penilaian dapat direplikasi oleh guru lain Jawaban: A 10. Salah satu contoh penerapan acuan kriteria dalam penilaian Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia adalah: A. Membandingkan nilai siswa dengan nilai rata-rata kelas B. Menggunakan rubrik penilaian untuk menilai esai siswa berdasarkan standar tertentu C. Memberikan nilai berdasarkan partisipasi siswa selama pembelajaran D. Memberikan nilai akhir berdasarkan intuisi guru Jawaban: B Semoga soal-soal ini sesuai dengan kebutuhan Anda! Apakah ada pe
Yerli Malı ve Zaman YolculuÄu BölĂŒm 1: Esrarengiz Sandık (1000 kelime) Defne, dördĂŒncĂŒ sınıfa giden, tarih ve bilim meraklısı bir kız çocuÄuydu. Ăzellikle geçmiĆe yolculuk yapmayı, atalarının nasıl yaĆadıÄını görmeyi hayal ederdi. Aralık ayının ortalarında, okulda Yerli Malı Haftası kutlanıyordu. Defne, öÄretmeninin yerli malı kullanmanın önemini anlattıÄını duymuĆtu ama bu konu ona biraz sıkıcı ve eski moda gelmiĆti. âĆimdi kim yerli malı ile uÄraĆır ki?â diye dĂŒĆĂŒnĂŒyordu. Bir gĂŒn, tavan arasında eski eĆyaların arasında gezinirken, tozlu bir sandık buldu. SandıÄın ĂŒzerinde garip semboller ve eski bir dilde yazılar vardı. Merakla sandıÄı açtı. İçerisinde eski bir defter, tuhaf bir alet ve ĂŒzerinde tarih yazan kĂŒĂ§ĂŒk bir kese vardı. Kesede, eski paralar ve ĂŒzerinde "Yerli Malı" yazan bir rozet vardı. Defne, heyecanla defteri açtı ve okumaya baĆladı. Defter, bĂŒyĂŒk bĂŒyĂŒk dedesine aitti ve içinde zaman yolculuÄu ile ilgili bilgiler, çizimler ve formĂŒller vardı! Defne, bĂŒyĂŒk bĂŒyĂŒk dedesinin zaman yolculuÄu yapabildiÄine inanamıyordu. Defterdeki çizimlere bakılırsa, elindeki alet de bir zaman yolculuÄu cihazıydı. Acaba hala çalıĆıyor muydu? Tarih yazan keseyi açtı ve içindeki paraları inceledi. Hepsi Osmanlı dönemine ait paralarmıĆ. Rozeti eline aldı, parlak ve gurur verici bir görĂŒntĂŒsĂŒ vardı. Defne, o anda bĂŒyĂŒk bĂŒyĂŒk dedesinin izinden gitmeye, zaman yolculuÄu yaparak yerli malı haftasının geçmiĆte nasıl kutlandıÄını görmeye karar verdi. BölĂŒm 2: Osmanlı Döneminde Yerli Malı (1500 kelime) Defne, cihazın ĂŒzerindeki dĂŒÄmelere basarak tarihi ayarladı ve kendini bir anda bambaĆka bir yerde buldu. Etrafında ahĆap evler, dar sokaklar ve Osmanlı kıyafetleri giymiĆ insanlar vardı. Bir pazaryerindeydi ve tezgahlar rengarenk kumaĆlar, el yapımı takılar, bakır kaplar ve seramiklerle doluydu. İnsanlar, birbirleriyle selamlaĆıyor, alıĆveriĆ yapıyor ve gĂŒlĂŒmsĂŒyorlardı. Defne, hayranlıkla etrafı inceliyordu. Bir tezgahın önĂŒnde duran yaĆlı bir adam, Defne'nin meraklı bakıĆlarını fark etti. "HoĆ geldin kızım," dedi gĂŒlĂŒmseyerek. "Ne arıyorsun?" Defne, biraz çekinerek, "Ben... ben gelecekten geldim," dedi. "Yerli Malı Haftası'nı araĆtırıyorum." YaĆlı adam ĆaĆırdı ama gĂŒlĂŒmsemesi yĂŒzĂŒnden eksik olmadı. "Ăyle mi?" dedi. "O halde doÄru yerdesin. Burada her Ćey yerli malı. Kendi ĂŒrettiÄimiz, kendi emeÄimizle yaptıÄımız ĂŒrĂŒnler." Defne, tezgahlardaki ĂŒrĂŒnlere daha dikkatli baktı. El dokuması halılar, iĆlemeli yazmalar, ahĆap oymalar... Her Ćey özenle ve sevgiyle yapılmıà gibiydi. "Peki," diye sordu Defne, "Yerli Malı Haftası'nı nasıl kutluyorsunuz?" YaĆlı adam, "Haftanın belirli gĂŒnlerinde, yerli ĂŒreticiler ĂŒrĂŒnlerini sergilerler," diye açıkladı. "İnsanlar da yerli malı kullanmanın önemini hatırlar, yerli ĂŒrĂŒnleri tercih ederler. Böylece hem kendi esnafımızı destekleriz hem de paramız ĂŒlkemizde kalır." Defne, yaĆlı adamın anlattıklarını dikkatle dinledi. O zamanlar yerli malı kullanmanın, vatanseverlik ve dayanıĆma ile yakından iliĆkili olduÄunu anladı. Pazaryerinde dolaĆırken, Defne, bir grup çocuÄun oyun oynadıÄını gördĂŒ. Ăocuklar, tahtadan yapılmıà topaçlar çeviriyor, bez bebeklerle oynuyor, kendi yaptıkları uçurtmaları uçuruyorlardı. Defne, onlara katıldı ve oyunlarına ortak oldu. Ăocuklar, Defne'ye kendi yaptıkları oyuncakları ve oyunları anlattılar. Defne, onların yaratıcılıÄına ve becerikliliÄine hayran kaldı. AkĆam olduÄunda, Defne, misafirperver bir ailenin evinde konuk edildi. Aile, ona yöresel yemekler ikram etti. Yemekler, Defne'nin daha önce hiç tatmadıÄı kadar lezzetliydi. Aile, ona kendi ĂŒrettikleri sebzeleri, meyveleri ve tahılları anlattı. Defne, o gece, yerli malı kullanmanın sadece ekonomik deÄil, aynı zamanda saÄlıklı ve doÄal bir yaĆam tarzı olduÄunu da anladı. BölĂŒm 3: Cumhuriyet Döneminde Yerli Malı (1500 kelime) Defne, zaman yolculuÄu cihazını kullanarak bu sefer Cumhuriyet dönemine gitti. Kendini modern bir Ćehirde buldu. Sokaklarda arabalar, binalar ve Ćık giyimli insanlar vardı. Bir okulun bahçesinde, Yerli Malı Haftası kutlaması vardı. ĂÄrenciler, ellerinde TĂŒrk bayrakları ile Ćarkılar söylĂŒyor, Ćiirler okuyor ve oyunlar oynuyorlardı. Defne, onlara katıldı ve coĆkuyla kutlamaya eĆlik etti. Bir öÄretmen, Defne'ye yaklaĆtı ve "HoĆ geldin," dedi. "Sen de mi Yerli Malı Haftası'nı kutlamaya geldin?" Defne, "Evet," dedi. "Hem de çok uzaklardan." ĂÄretmen gĂŒlĂŒmsedi. "O halde," dedi, "gel seninle sergimizi gezelim." Defne, öÄretmenle birlikte sınıfları gezdi. Sınıflarda, öÄrencilerin yaptıÄı yerli malı ĂŒrĂŒnleri sergileniyordu. Resimler, el iĆleri, maketler, deneyler... Defne, çocukların yaratıcılıÄına ve yeteneklerine hayran kaldı. Bir sınıfta, öÄrenciler yerli malı ile ilgili bir oyun oynuyorlardı. Oyunda, öÄrenciler, yerli malı ĂŒrĂŒnleri tanımaya ve özelliklerini anlatmaya çalıĆıyorlardı. Defne de oyuna katıldı ve bildiklerini paylaĆtı. BaĆka bir sınıfta, öÄrenciler yerli malı ile ilgili Ćarkılar söylĂŒyorlardı. Defne, Ćarkıların sözlerine dikkatle kulak verdi. Ćarkılarda, yerli malı kullanmanın önemi, ĂŒlkemizin kalkınması ve baÄımsızlıÄı vurgulanıyordu. Defne, Cumhuriyet döneminde yerli malı haftasının, milli birlik ve beraberlik duygusunu gĂŒĂ§lendirmek, ĂŒlke ekonomisine destek olmak ve yerli ĂŒretimi teĆvik etmek amacıyla kutlandıÄını anladı. Okuldan ayrılırken, Defne, bir grup öÄrencinin sokakta yĂŒrĂŒyĂŒĆ yaptıÄını gördĂŒ. ĂÄrenciler, ellerinde "Yerli Malı Yurdun Malı, Herkes Onu Kullanmalı" yazılı pankartlar taĆıyorlardı. Defne, onlara katıldı ve sloganlar atarak yĂŒrĂŒdĂŒ. O gĂŒn, Defne, yerli malı haftasının sadece bir kutlama deÄil, aynı zamanda bir bilinçlendirme ve eÄitim faaliyeti olduÄunu anladı. BölĂŒm 4: GĂŒnĂŒmĂŒzde Yerli Malı ve Defne'nin Kararı (1000 kelime) Defne, zaman yolculuÄu cihazını kullanarak kendi zamanına geri döndĂŒ. Artık yerli malı haftasına bakıà açısı tamamen deÄiĆmiĆti. GeçmiĆte yaptıÄı yolculuklar, ona yerli malı kullanmanın önemini, tarihsel ve kĂŒltĂŒrel boyutunu derinlemesine anlama fırsatı vermiĆti. Okuldaki Yerli Malı Haftası etkinliklerine katılırken, artık daha bilinçli ve ilgiliydi. ĂÄretmeninin anlattıklarını can kulaÄıyla dinliyor, arkadaĆlarıyla yerli malı hakkında sohbet ediyor, kendi yaptıÄı yerli malı ĂŒrĂŒnleri gururla sergiliyordu. Defne, sadece okulda deÄil, gĂŒnlĂŒk hayatında da yerli malı kullanmaya özen göstermeye baĆladı. AlıĆveriĆ yaparken yerli ĂŒretim ĂŒrĂŒnleri tercih ediyor, ailesine ve arkadaĆlarına da yerli malı kullanmanın önemini anlatıyordu. Artık Defne, yerli malı haftasının sadece bir hafta deÄil, her zaman hatırlanması ve uygulanması gereken bir ilke olduÄunu biliyordu. Yerli malı kullanmanın, ĂŒlkesine, milletine ve kendisine yaptıÄı bir yatırım olduÄunu anlamıĆtı. Defne, zaman yolculuÄu macerasını ve öÄrendiklerini bir deftere yazdı. Bu defteri, ileride kendi çocuklarına ve torunlarına bırakmayı dĂŒĆĂŒndĂŒ. ĂĂŒnkĂŒ biliyordu ki, yerli malı bilinci, nesilden nesile aktarılması gereken önemli bir mirasti.
Berikut ringkasan modul ajar terkait surat niaga dalam komunikasi bisnis dengan bahasa yang mudah dipahami oleh siswa SMK: --- ## **Ringkasan Modul Ajar: Surat Niaga dalam Bisnis** ### **1. Apa Itu Surat Niaga?** Surat niaga adalah surat yang digunakan dalam kegiatan bisnis, baik untuk menawarkan barang/jasa, melakukan pemesanan, pengiriman barang, hingga penyelesaian pengaduan. Surat ini penting untuk komunikasi resmi antara perusahaan dengan pelanggan atau mitra bisnis. ### **2. Jenis-Jenis Surat Niaga** 1. **Surat Perkenalan** â Digunakan untuk memperkenalkan produk atau layanan kepada calon pelanggan. 2. **Surat Permintaan Penawaran** â Digunakan oleh calon pembeli untuk meminta informasi harga dan spesifikasi barang. 3. **Surat Penawaran** â Berisi penawaran barang atau jasa dari penjual kepada calon pembeli. 4. **Surat Pesanan** â Digunakan pembeli untuk memesan barang atau jasa tertentu. 5. **Surat Balasan Pesanan** â Dibuat penjual untuk mengonfirmasi pesanan yang telah diterima. 6. **Surat Pemberitahuan Pengiriman Barang** â Memberitahukan bahwa barang telah dikirim. 7. **Surat Pengantar Barang** â Dikirim bersama barang yang dikirim untuk memastikan penerimaan. 8. **Surat Pengiriman Pembayaran** â Digunakan oleh pembeli untuk mengonfirmasi pembayaran pesanan. 9. **Surat Pengaduan (Klaim)** â Digunakan pembeli jika ada masalah dengan pesanan yang diterima. 10. **Surat Penyelesaian Pengaduan** â Dibuat oleh penjual untuk menanggapi surat pengaduan dari pelanggan. ### **3. Bagian-Bagian Surat Niaga** Surat niaga memiliki bagian-bagian penting, seperti: - **Kepala Surat (Kop Surat)** â Berisi informasi perusahaan pengirim surat. - **Tanggal Surat** â Menunjukkan kapan surat dibuat. - **Nomor Surat** â Mempermudah pengarsipan. - **Lampiran** â Jika ada dokumen tambahan. - **Perihal** â Menjelaskan isi utama surat. - **Alamat Tujuan** â Kepada siapa surat dikirim. - **Salam Pembuka** â Kata-kata pembuka sebelum isi surat. - **Isi Surat** â Berisi maksud dan tujuan surat. - **Salam Penutup** â Kata-kata penutup sebelum tanda tangan. - **Nama dan Jabatan Pengirim** â Identitas yang menandatangani surat. ### **4. Cara Menulis Surat Niaga yang Baik** - Gunakan bahasa formal dan sopan. - Tulis dengan jelas dan singkat. - Gunakan format yang rapi sesuai standar bisnis. - Perhatikan ejaan dan tata bahasa. - Cantumkan informasi yang lengkap sesuai keperluan surat. ### **5. Kesimpulan** Surat niaga adalah alat komunikasi resmi dalam dunia bisnis yang digunakan untuk berbagai keperluan, seperti pemesanan, penawaran, dan penyelesaian pengaduan. Menulis surat niaga yang baik akan membantu perusahaan berkomunikasi dengan pelanggan atau mitra bisnis secara profesional. --- Ringkasan ini membantu siswa memahami isi modul dengan bahasa yang lebih sederhana dan mudah dipahami. Apakah Anda ingin menambahkan sesuatu atau mengubahnya? đ
Bagus, mari saya buatkan soal khusus tentang **Mengenali Unsur Pembentuk Prompt untuk Kecerdasan Artifisial Generatif**. Soal ini bisa digunakan untuk latihan, kuis, atau evaluasi belajar. --- # đ Latihan Soal: Mengenali Unsur Pembentuk Prompt untuk Kecerdasan Artifisial Generatif ## 1. Pilihan Ganda 1. Unsur **konteks** dalam sebuah prompt berfungsi untuk⊠a. Menentukan panjang jawaban AI b. Menjelaskan latar belakang atau tujuan permintaan c. Mengatur gaya bahasa AI d. Membatasi jumlah kata dalam jawaban --- 2. Jika seorang pengguna menulis: *âBertindaklah sebagai seorang guru sejarah, jelaskan Perang Dunia II dengan bahasa sederhana.â* Unsur yang ditonjolkan dalam prompt tersebut adalah⊠a. Konteks b. Peran (Role/Persona) c. Format d. Batasan --- 3. Manakah contoh **format output** dalam penyusunan prompt? a. âTuliskan dalam bentuk tabel perbandingan.â b. âGunakan bahasa yang mudah dipahami anak SMA.â c. âJelaskan topik ekonomi global tahun 2025.â d. âBayangkan Anda seorang penulis fiksi ilmiah.â --- 4. Apa manfaat memberikan **contoh (examples/few-shot prompting)** dalam sebuah prompt? a. Membuat AI lebih cepat memproses jawaban b. Memberi pola agar AI meniru gaya/struktur jawaban yang diinginkan c. Membatasi jumlah kata dalam jawaban d. Mengurangi kesalahan tata bahasa AI --- 5. Prompt berikut mengandung unsur apa? *âTuliskan ringkasan 200 kata, hindari istilah teknis berlebihan.â* a. Peran dan gaya bahasa b. Instruksi dan batasan c. Konteks dan format d. Format dan contoh --- ## 2. Isian Singkat 1. Sebutkan **tiga unsur penting** dalam menyusun prompt yang baik! 2. Jelaskan apa yang dimaksud dengan **batasan (constraints)** dalam sebuah prompt. 3. Mengapa **konteks** sangat penting untuk menghasilkan jawaban AI yang sesuai? --- ## 3. Soal Praktik 1. Buatlah sebuah prompt untuk AI yang meminta: * Menjelaskan konsep **ekonomi hijau**, * Dalam bentuk **bullet point**, * Dengan gaya bahasa **formal**, * Untuk audiens mahasiswa ekonomi. 2. Susunlah prompt yang mengarahkan AI untuk menulis **puisi pendek tentang bunga mawar** dengan gaya romantis, namun batasi hanya **empat baris**. --- Apakah Anda mau saya buatkan juga **kunci jawaban & pembahasan** untuk soal ini agar lebih lengkap?
Select all the numbers that can be used as a common denominator to rewrite the fractions __ 2 6 and __ 1 2 . A 3 D 12 B 6 E 16 C 8 2 Aaron ran __ 5 8 mile to his friendâs house. Then he ran another __ 1 4 mile to the park. 1 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 4 Which equation shows how many miles Aaron ran? A __ 5 8 â __ 1 4 = __ 2 8 C __ 5 8 + __ 1 4 = __ 7 8 B __ 5 8 â __ 1 4 = __ 3 8 D __ 5 8 + __ 1 4 = __ 8 8 3 Select all the expressions that can be used to find the sum of __ 6 8 and ___9 12. A ___ 36 48 + ___ 36 48 D ___ 18 20 + ___ 17 20 B ___ 24 36 + ___ 27 36 E ___ 18 24 + ___ 18 24 C ___ 14 16 + ___ 13 16 4 Write a pair of equivalent fractions for __ 3 4 and __ 2 5 using a common denominator of 20. __ 3 4 = __ 2 5 = 5 Katie spent __ 4 5 hour painting and __ 1 2 hour drawing. ? 1 1 2 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 How much more time in hours did she spend painting than drawing? 6 Dave is planting a garden. He plants cucumbers in ___2 12 of his garden and tomatoes in __ 2 3 of his garden. What fraction of his garden does Dave plant with cucumbers and tomatoes? 7 Of the students in Mariaâs class, __ 2 5 have dogs and __ 1 3 have cats. No students have both a dog and a cat. What fraction represents how many more students in Mariaâs class have dogs? 52 © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company Module 6 âą Form A Name Module Test DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through "File info" CorrectionKey=NL-C 9 Mr. Gonzales used __ 3 4 quart of broth and __ 1 2 quart of milk to make soup. How many quarts of liquid did he use? Part A Complete the fraction model to represent the problem. 1 1 2 1 4 1 4 1 4 Part B Write an equation to show how many quarts of liquid Mr. Gonzales used to make soup. 10 A bowl of cereal contains __ 2 3 cup of oats and __ 2 8 cup of raisins. Write a numerical expression using equivalent fractions with a common denominator of 24 to model how many more cups of oats than raisins there are in the bowl. 11 Jessica read __ 1 6 of her book on Thursday, __ 2 9 of her book on Friday, and __ 1 2 of her book on Saturday. Part A Write a numerical expression using equivalent fractions to model how much of her book she has read so far. Part B What fraction of her book has Jessica read?
Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1â . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2â as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2â) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic massâatomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2â has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1â . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2â . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2â3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OHâ) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2â3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1â 2â 3â 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COOâ carbonate, CO2â3 arsenate, AsO3â3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrOâ3 chromate, CrO2â4 phosphite, PO3â3 chlorate, ClOâ3 dichromate, Cr2O2â7 phosphate, PO3â4 chlorite, ClOâ2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2â4 cyanide, CNâ oxalate, C2O2â4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2POâ4 peroxide, O2â2 hydrogen carbonate, HCOâ3 silicate, SiO2â3 hydrogen sulfate, HSOâ4 sulfate, SO2â4 hydrogen sulfide, HSâ sulfite, SO2â3 hydroxide, OHâ hypochlorite, ClOâ nitrate, NOâ3 nitrite, NOâ2 perchlorate, ClOâ4 permanganate, MnOâ4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NOâ3) and nitrite (NOâ2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClOâ , hypochlorite ClOâ2 , chlorite ClOâ3 , chlorate ClOâ4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.
2.Superlative Adjective (3.1 Complete the sentences by using superlative (-est or most...) and a preposition (of or in)
Received: 26 November 2019 Revised: 10 January 2020 Accepted: 19 January 2020 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13005 PEDIATRICS/PHYSIOLOGY Adipokines: A gear shift in puberty DesirĂ©e Nieuwenhuis | NatĂ lia Pujol-Gualdo Amanda J. Kiliaan Department of Anatomy, Radboud university medical center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Preclinical Imaging Center PRIME, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Correspondence Amanda J. Kiliaan, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Anatomy, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Preclinical Imaging Center PRIME, Radboud university medical center, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Geert Grooteplein 21N 6525 EZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Email: amanda.kiliaan@radboudumc.nl Funding information Europees Fonds voor Regionale Ontwikkeling (EFRO), Grant/Award Number: BriteN 2016 1 | INTRODUCTION The prevalence of obesity in adolescents and children is increasing in | Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen | Summary In this review, we discuss the role of adipokines in the onset of puberty in children with obesity during adrenarche and gonadarche and provide a clear and detailed overview of the biological processes of two major players, leptin and adiponectin. Adipokines, especially leptin and adiponectin, seem to induce an early onset of puberty in girls and boys with obesity by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary- gonadal (HPG) axis. Moreover, adipokines and their receptors are expressed in the gonads, suggesting a role in sexual maturation and reproduction. All in all, adipokines may be a clue in understanding mechanisms underlying the onset of puberty in child- hood obesity and puberty onset variability. KEYWORDS adipokines, obesity, puberty 1,2 the age of 5 years were overweight or were with obesity in 2016, and 3 Obesity is defined by an excessive accumulation of white adipose tissue (WAT), and it is often indicated by a body mass index (BMI) 4 above 30. Two main types of adipose tissue were described: WAT and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which differ in morphology and func- 5-7 Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen and Amanda J. Kiliaan contributed equally to this work. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2020 The Authors. Obesity Reviews published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of World Obesity Federation Obesity Reviews. 2020;21:e13005. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/obr 1 of 10 https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13005 alarming rates. Specifically, worldwide, 41 million children below this number is expected to increase to 70 million in 2025. obesity is associated with various severe health complications, includ- ing increased risk of diabetes mellitus type 2, hypertension, heart dis- eases, and disturbances in sex hormone levels. 5,6 and mitochondria and plays a role in thermogenesis. Adipocytes in tion. BAT consists of adipocytes containing multiple lipid droplets WAT contain only a few mitochondria and a single lipid droplet. Adipose tissue has several functions including the storage of energy, thermogenesis, and the production and secretion of adipokines Generally, two physiological processes, adrenarche and gonadarche, 11,24 Childhood 5,7,8 a key role in puberty onset. Puberty is known as a period through which the body changes physically, being a physiological process resulting in the maturation of children, i.e. they develop sexual characteristics and obtain reproduc- 9,11 Adipokines are involved in a number of physiological processes including blood pressure, metabo- lism, glucose, and vascular homeostasis and may play amongst others 8-10 (hormones, cytokines, and peptides). tive functions. between obesity and puberty,2,12-23 the biological mechanisms under- lying obesity and puberty onset remain unclear. Hereafter, we review in detail the role of adipokines in the onset of puberty in childhood obesity. Although many studies have shown associations 2 | INITIATION OF PUBERTY PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE interact to regulate the onset of puberty. During adrenarche, the adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones (including 2 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), androstenedione, and cortisol), insulin-like growth factor, and growth hormone, which contribute to the pubertal insights on new genetic loci (e.g. melanocortin-4 receptor, mitochon- drial carrier 2, and mitogen-activated protein kinase 13) and on sev- eral pathways that regulate the timing of puberty; however, it partly 34 9,24,25 Both adrenarche and gonadarche are involved in the development growth spurt, body odor, skin oiliness, and skeletal maturation. explains puberty timing variation. Thereby, defining the role of 25 adipokines is of importance in elucidating the variability in puberty as the expression of adipokines is sex-specific and is altered with body composition, adiposity, and during growth spurts. Moreover, adipokines and their receptors are expressed in gonads and several brain regions suggesting involvement in the onset of puberty and sex- ual maturation. Lastly, adipokines interfere in processes regulating timing and duration of puberty, for instance in the HPA and HPG axes which are both key players during adrenarche and gonadarche. Involvement of adipokines in the onset of puberty and specifically in individuals with obesity will be further reviewed in the next 2,24 3 | Puberty onset in girls is assessed using different markers, such as thelarche (breast development), menarche (the start of of pubic hair. pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis is activated,2,26 and several hormones have been identified to participate in the activation of the HPG axis During gonadarche (Figure 1), the hypothalamic- 2,27 Kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin are released by specialized including kisspeptin, neurokinin B, dynorphin, leptin, and ghrelin. 28 key regulator of the pulsatile secretion of gonadotropin releasing neurons, the KNDy neurons in the hypothalamus. Kisspeptin is a 29,30 B stimulates, and dynorphin inhibits the release of kisspeptin, which hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. In addition, neurokinin implies that both coordinate a pulsatile release of kisspeptin. 31 Sub- sections. sequently, the activated HPG axis induces the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). As a result, gametogenesis occurs, and the gonads will release sex hormones. Consequently, secondary sex characteristics develop including breast development in girls and an increased testicular vol- 2,26,32 is possibly due to differences in levels of body fat, hypothalamic-pitui- THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN GIRLS ume in boys. The age at puberty onset varies greatly among individuals, which 19 35 menstruation), and pubic hair development. 33 genome-wide association studies have provided important new tary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, and genetic background. Recent The average age of However, this age differs between cultures and ethnicities, and since 1980, age at menarche is girls at start of menarche is 12.4 years. 36 significantly decreasing. 36-39 F I G U R E 1 Hormonal regulation in the initiation of puberty in boys and girls. The secretion of kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin from KNDy neurons initiate the release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. This activates the pituitary gland to produce and secrete luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which in turn stimulate the gonads to produce estrogen and testosterone in girls and boys, respectively 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 3 of 10 T A B L E 1 Summary of included studies Authors Year Country Study Design Primary Outcome Sex Sample Size (n) Age (y) Data Collection Lian et al21 2019 China Cross-sectional Puberty starts earlier in Chinese Han girls with obesity compared with Chinese Han girls with normal weight. Girls 2996 9-19 2012 and 2013 Biro et al12 Lazzeri et al20 2018 USA 2018 Italy Longitudinal Cross-sectional Body mass index had a greater effect on age at menarche than did race and ethnicity. Girls 946 6-16 2004-2014 Li et al23 2018 China Longitudinal For both, boys and girls, a higher BMI (ie, overweight and obese) is associated with earlier onset of puberty Girls Girls Boys Girls 542 Deng et al22 Flom et al15 2017 China Cross-sectional Increased BMI is associated with early timing spermarche and menarche. Boys Girls Girls 1278258 9-15 2005-2012 He et al24 Holmgren et al17 2017 China 2017 Sweden Cross-sectional Longitudinal Onset of puberty is not related to obesity in boys. Boys Boys Girls Girls 782 7-17 972 929 5839 Kelly et al19 2017 UK 2016 Brazil 2016 USA Longitudinal prospective cohort Higher BMI in girls is associated with the onset of menstruation at an earlier age. 11 10-18 11-17 Barcellos Gemelli et al25 Cross-sectional Longitudinal Excess weight is associated with early age of menarche. Girls 727 2014 2003-2009 Glass et al16 Lee et al26 In girls, but not in boys, greater adiposity is associated with the earlier onset of puberty. Boys Girls 135 Cabrera et al27 Leonibus et al14 2014 USA 2013 Italy Cross-sectional Longitudinal Thelarche occurred earlier than recently reported, while age of menarche remained unchanged. Girls 610 3-17.9 2007 2005-2012 Currie et al13 2012 Europe, USA, Canada Cross-sectional Overweight/obesity during childhood predicts the early onset of puberty in girls. Girls 20410 11, 13, 15 2005-2006 2017 USA Prospective birth cohort Overweight/obese status at the age of 7 ye was associated with increased risk of early menarche 788 From birth to menarche occurred Pregnancies 1959-1966 2016 USA Cross-sectional Boys with overweight enter puberty earlier compared with boys with normal weight or obesity, while puberty starts later in boys with obesity compared with boys with normal weight and overweight. Boys 3872 6-16 2005-2010 Overweight during childhood shows a relation with the early onset of puberty in girls. 6535 4259 695 11 15 5.8-12.2 2009/2010 2013/2014 2014-2017 Higher BMI during childhood is associated with early puberty. 2008 and 2009 2000-2002 Obesity during childhood is related to the earlier onset of puberty. Boys Girls 84 123 71 (Continues) 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 4 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 3.1 | Fat storage For the initiation of puberty, the timing of stimulation and/or inhibi- tion of different hormones is important, and additionally, a certain amount and distribution of body fat is needed in order to start menar- che, which emphasizes the importance of body fat. From an evolution- ary point of view, body fat increases in mammalian females during puberty onset, and it highlights the need to guarantee a healthy preg- 40 women with anorexia nervosa. particularly body fat localized predominantly on the gluteofemoral fat depots, is profoundly associated with start of menarche, more than nancy, offspring, and maternal survival. fat, sex-hormones, and neuroendocrine alterations can evolve in men- strual dysfunction, for instance, in women with severe obesity or in 41-43 44-46 to gluteofemoral fat depots suggesting that leptin may convey infor- amount of total body fat. mation on body fat distribution to the hypothalamus during puberty. An improper level of body Importantly, body fat distribution, Blood leptin levels are strongly related 45 3.2 | HPG axis The HPG axis is activated by the release of kisspeptin resulting in the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus, and LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. In girls, FSH is involved in the development of the folli- cles in the ovaries, and it promotes the secretion of estrogen. LH stim- ulates the production of androgen hormones and induces ovulation 48 9,47 the release of kisspeptin and neurokinin B, and kisspeptin thereby (Figure 1). The secretion of estrogen has an inhibitory effect on inhibits the GnRH release from the hypothalamus. pattern of GnRH is important for the regulation of the menstrual cycle. This roughly 28-day-cycle comprises several phases, including the follicular phase and luteal phase. During the follicular phase, increasing levels of FSH stimulate the maturation of follicles and the production of estrogen from the ovaries. This in turn inhibits the release of FSH from the pituitary gland. A high level of estrogen will induce the production of LH by the pituitary gland, resulting in ovula- tion. The matured follicle secretes progesterone thereby inhibiting the release of GnRH. When the corpus luteum is demolished, there is less 48 3.3 | Adipokines According to results from studies reported in Table 1, girls with obe- sity enter puberty earlier compared with girls with normal higher leptin concentrations inhibit the intake of food and increases inhibition of GnRH. As a consequence, the cycle will start again. whole process, starting from the activated HPG axis, results in the development of the secondary sex characteristics in girls including 9,47 thelarche and menarche. 13,14,16-23,49-51 weight. these girls might be found in the secretion of adipokines. For instance, leptin is positively associated with the amount of body fat. Generally, energy expenditure. 9,52-54 An explanation for the early onset of puberty in The expression This TABLE 1 (Continued) Authors Year Country Study Design Primary Outcome Sample Sex Size (n) Age (y) Data Collection Herman-Giddens et al28 2012 USA Cross-sectional Observed mean ages of beginning genital and pubic hair growth and early testicular volumes were earlier than in past studies, depending on the characteristic and race/ethnicity. Boys 4131 6-16 2005-2010 Sorensen et al29 Aksglaede et al30 2010 2009 Denmark Denmark Cross-sectional/longitudinal Longitudinal Puberty onset at earlier ages was associated with an increased BMI in boys. Boys 1528 5.8-19.9 1991-1993/2006-2008 1930-1969 Juul et al31 Ribeiro et al32 2007 2006 Denmark Portugal Retrospective cohort Cross-sectional Higher BMI is associated with early voice break. 11-15 10-15 1990-1999 Kaplowitz et al18 Abbreviation: BMI, body mass USA Cross-sectional The early onset of puberty in Caucasian girls is likely related to an increased BMI. 5-12 1992-1993 2001 index. The higher BMI in boys and girls at 7 y of age, the earlier they enter puberty. Boys 21 612 Girls 135 223 Boys 463 Boys 382 Girls 437 Girls 10 750 Early sexual maturation in boys and girls is associated with overweight. 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 5 of 10 Leptin may possibly play a role in adrenarche as its plasma level increases with higher levels of body fat and as it can modulate both girls. 33 ing adrenarche. In coherence, in children with obesity, the androgen These findings suggested that lower reproductive status was associated with higher total adiponectin concentrations and that a higher reproductive status was related to higher HMW adiponectin the HPA and HPG axes. These axes are functionally integrated dur- DHEAS was positively associated with leptin levels. Nevertheless, concentrations in girls. In addition, individuals with obesity often another study showed that enhanced adrenal androgen secretion in girls with premature adrenarche was not explained by leptin or BMI 55 ated with androgen levels in girls ; however, it was not related to levels. and IL-6. TNF-α alters, and IL-6 inhibits the expression of 56 8 In addition, the adipokine adiponectin was negatively associ- 57 differences of adiponectin seem to develop during the progression of 56 adiponectin (Figure 2). Thereby, a low level of total adiponectin and/or high levels of inflammatory cytokines in individuals with obe- sity can promote the onset of puberty. Many more adipokines are secreted by WAT including omentin, 52,65-67 9,36,62,68 adrenarche in girls with Prader-Willi syndrome. Interestingly, sex puberty. adrenarche; however, both are not required factors. Thus, leptin and adiponectin might be able to influence In gonadarche, leptin can stimulate the secretion of kisspeptin, and subsequently activation of the HPG axis, which eventually increases the expression of estrogen and androstenedione in the ova- 58 2,60 65-67 The expression of these ries (Figure 2). Ob gene in WAT, resulting in the synthesis and secretion of leptin. Thus, high levels of leptin promote onset of puberty in girls via secre- tion of kisspeptin, and estrogen stimulates leptin secretion addition- ally. Moreover, adiponectin can affect the HPG axis due to the expression of adiponectin receptors in the hypothalamus, pituitary In return, estrogen stimulates the expression of the 59 gland, and gonads. onset as it inhibits the secretion of kisspeptin and GnRH in the hypo- thalamus and the release of GH and LH in the pituitary gland, and 2,60-62 52,60 63 girls with central precocious puberty (CPP). Moreover, total adiponectin had negative correlations with progression of puberty in girls (defined by Tanner stages), whereas HMW adiponectin had FIGURE 2 Adipokinesaffectingthe initiation of puberty in girls. Leptin stimulates the release of kisspeptin in KNDy neurons, which activates the hypothalamus to produce gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). In response to the release of GnRH, the pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH), which stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen resulting in the formation of secondary sex characteristics in girls. Estrogen stimulates the production of leptin. Adiponectin inhibits GnRH release resulting in reduced levels of GnRH and thereby a delayed onset of puberty. TNF- α and IL-6 inhibit the production of adiponectin and therefore stimulate the onset of puberty In detail, adiponectin is a regulator of puberty thereby inhibiting the onset of puberty (Figure 2). with obesity often have low levels of adiponectin. et al. showed that total adiponectin was significantly lower, whereas high molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin was significantly higher in ment. 55 63 develop a chronic low-grade inflammatory state, which can be indi- cated by a high level of circulating inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α 64 Individuals Sitticharoon positive associations with LH levels and the progression of puberty in 63 visfatin, resistin, and chemerin. and visfatin are expressed in the ovaries. adipokines in the ovaries suggests a role within the reproductive sys- tem; however, the exact biological processes have to be examined. Thus, specifically leptin, adiponectin, and inflammatory cytokines pro- duced by WAT could be permissive key players during an early onset of puberty in girls with obesity. As an exception, HMW adiponectin seems to have a stimulatory effect on peripheral repro- ductive function as HMW is not able to cross the blood brain 63 barrier. 4 | Markers that are used to assess puberty onset in boys are THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN BOYS spermarche, voice break, testicular volume, and pubic hair develop- 35 spermarche develop in the early stages of puberty onset, voice In women, omentin, chemerin, While pubic hair development, larger testicular volume, and 69 testicular volume increases, which occurs at an average age of break usually appears in later stages of puberty. Generally, first 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 6 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 11.9 years, followed by the development of pubic hair at 12.2 years of average, and lastly, boys experience spermarche around an aver- 55 related with leptin levels. Thereby, leptin plausibly has a minor impact in adrenarche in boys. Since leptin receptors are found in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes, they might be involved in the onset of puberty by affecting the HPG axis during gonadarche. Leptin stimulates the release of kisspeptin and GnRH, and as a consequence, it accelerates the onset of puberty (Table 1, Figure 3). In contrast, adiponectin inhibits the secretion of GnRH, GH, LH, and FSH therewith delaying the onset of puberty. However, adiponectin levels are generally lower in men compared with women and even lower in men with obe- age age of 13.4 years. 70 4.1 | Fat storage Many aspects of the reproductive physiology are energetically demanding,71 and therefore, an adequate energy level is necessary. In boys, a dynamic change in body composition occurs around the age of 10 to 13 years, in which they gain approximately 40% of sity. culating inflammatory cytokines. levels can stimulate the HPG axis and therewith an early onset of puberty in boys. Nevertheless, leptin can inhibit the production of tes- 72 mostly consisting of lean mass, which causes exhaustion of most of fat. Subsequently, a growth spurt follows in which they gain tissue 72 in boys, an adequate amount of body fat is important in the onset of their body fat. These alterations in amount of body fat indicate that 4.2 | Puberty in boys is initiated by the release of kisspeptin. As mentioned before, this activates the HPG axis, resulting in the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus, and consequently the release of LH and FSH 9,74 puberty. tosterone from the testes, to estrogen (Figure 3). of the development of secondary sex characteristics in boys. Additionally, leptin can affect fertility in men as it can modulate the nutritional support of spermatogenesis, and moreover, dysfunction of spermatogenesis is associated with an increased leptin level and 73 58 2,60-62 HPG axis from the pituitary gland (Figure 1). and LH stimulates the secretion of testosterone from the testes, which inhibits the release of kisspeptin from the KNDy neurons and 9,48 in men, the release of kisspeptin is more consistent, causing a con- 29,48 subsequently GnRH from the hypothalamus. receptors expressed on KNDy neurons. In humans, KNDy neurons Contrarily to women, LH-induced testosterone levels lead to the stant release of LH. development of secondary sex characteristics in boys. differences between sexes in kisspeptin release are related to a sex- specific and sex steroid-dependent kisspeptin system as estrogen and progesterone modulate kisspeptin activity through the sex-steroid 48 in the infundibular nucleus are involved in negative and positive sex- 48 tal exposure to sex steroids and result in sex-specific differences in steroid feedbacks. kisspeptin release. These sexual dimorphisms are induced by perina- 75,76 4.3 | Adipokines The association between obesity and puberty onset in boys is rather controversial compared with findings in girls. Most studies reported an early onset of puberty in boys associated with increased ate adipose tissue from actual breast tissue. stages are more difficult to assess than female stages as boys lack a more determined marker such as menarche. Thirdly, puberty onset can be indicated by the activation of the HPG axis, and the presence of these secondary sex characteristics is the result of hormonal 2 14,17,22,23,50,51,77,78 BMI, 20,49 all while others reported no associations at Current markers used 79 16,80 or a delayed onset of puberty (Table 1). The presence of excessive adipose tissue can be involved in puberty onset in boys as the secretion of adipokines can modulate both adrenarche and gonadarche. Leptin can affect adrenarche by modulating both the HPG and HPA axes,33 and moreover, androgen levels were positively 55 nal androgen secretion in boys with premature adrenarche was not associated with plasma leptin levels. Nevertheless, enhanced adre- 9 In more detail, 61,62 adiponectin, and individuals with obesity often have high levels of cir- Moreover, inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, and IL-6, inhibit expression of the leptin receptor in the testis. FSH induces spermatogenesis, too. function and role still have to be examined. 64 High leptin and low adiponectin and fat tissue can convert testosterone Both processes might result in the delay 29,61,79 81,82 In men, other adipokines like chemerin are found in the gonads 65 Thus, particularly high leptin and low adiponectin levels stimulate the HPG axis and thereby accelerate the onset of puberty in boys. Additionally, leptin can dysregulate the development of secondary sex characteristics and spermatogenesis by affecting testosterone levels and nutritional sup- port of spermatogenesis. 5 | LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Even though multiple epidemiological studies have shown the link between puberty onset and obesity, there are some important limita- tions. Firstly, determining both the onset and stage of puberty is rather difficult. For instance, assessing the stage of breast develop- ment in girls with obesity is complicated as clinicians should differenti- 2 changes in response to the activated HPG axis. to determine the onset of puberty refer to secondary sex characteris- tics, such as testicular volume in boys and breast development in girls. A more accurate measurement of puberty onset would be to combine secondary sex characteristics with plasma or serum hormone level measurements such as LH, FSH, adipokines, e.g. leptin. Thereby, differences in puberty measurements could explain variations in the age of puberty onset between boys and girls within different Thereby, resistin is expressed in the testes of rats, but its exact 83 Secondly, male pubertal 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 7 of 10 FIGURE 3 Adipokines affecting the initiation of puberty in boys. Leptin activates kisspeptin secretion in KNDy neurons, this activates the production of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH), activating the production of testosterone from the testes allowing the development of secondary sex characteristics. Leptin also inhibits the production of testosterone, which may cause a delayed onset of puberty. Adiponectin inhibits GnRH release. Low levels of adiponectin, as a result of TNF-α and IL-6 expression, lead to a reduced inhibition of GnRH. In response to GnRH release, the pituitary gland will secrete FSH and LH, and the testes will produce testosterone resulting in the development of secondary sex characteristics in boys countries, and In addition, the inclusion of a of puberty. ferent time points is complicated, as subjects examined several decades ago presented pronounced differences concerning lifestyle patterns such as nutrition and exercise habits. Lastly, obesity or over- weight is often determined by BMI, a classification based on weight and height measurements. Additionally, it is important that all studies studies or across continents, ethnicities proper age range (8-16 years) is important when assessing the onset (Figure 4). 12-15,17,20-23,49,77-79,84,85 30,47 Furthermore, comparison between studies from dif- 86 Specifically in children, BMI is often dependent on age and growth use the same anthropometric standards and sex-specific cut-offs. 13,14,16-23,49-51,77-80 fat and would represent a more accurate measurement in its regard. Based on this review, several suggestions can be made for further research. Firstly, the roles of adipokines like resistin, chemerin, visfatin, and omentin in puberty onset, fertility, and sexual maturation should be examined in detail. Secondly, future research examining the onset of puberty should combine indicators of puberty onset (e.g. breast development or testicular volume) with plasma or serum hor- mone measurements such as LH, FSH, sex-steroids, adipokines (e.g. spurts. ment in case of growth spurts. distribution of body fat should be taken into account in determining puberty and obesity in children. For instance, the body adiposity index (BAI), which was introduced in 2011 by Bergman et al.,87 uses hip cir- cumference and height in order to estimate the percentage of body 87 Thereby, BMI is a less accurate measure- F I G U R E 4 87,88 Therefore, both percentage and Average age of puberty onset in Europe, China, and the United States according to several studies from Table 1. Age of puberty onset ranges from 8.47 to 13.33 years in girls and from 8.63 leptin), and body fat distribution (e.g. BAI,87 waist-hip ratio's and/or dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)2). Additionally, defining con- sistent and general measurements of puberty in both boys and girls, combined with a proper age range (8-16 years), would facilitate the comparisons between different studies and their results. 12-15, 17, 20-23, 25-29, 31 to 13.7 years in boys. included if average age of markers used to assess puberty was not reported. Pink: girls. Blue: boys Studies (Table 1) were not 39, 56 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 8 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 6 | CONCLUSION In conclusion, epidemiological data regarding obesity and puberty onset in girls show similar outcomes as adiposity results in the early onset of puberty in girls. The majority of the studies examining boys with obesity indicate an early onset of puberty, while not all reported an earlier onset of puberty. In detail, high leptin, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels combined with low adiponectin levels stimulate the activation of the HPG axis in girls and boys with obesity, and 5, 45, 50, 51 REFERENCES 1. Kumar S, Kelly AS. Review of childhood obesity: from epidemiology, etiology, and comorbidities to clinical assessment and treatment. May- o Clin Proc. 2017;92(2):251-265. 2. Reinehr T, Roth CL. Is there a causal relationship between obesity and puberty? The Lancet Child & adolescent health. 2019;3(1):44-54. 3. WorldHealthOrganization. Facts and figures on childhood obesity. 2017. 4. Guglielmi V, Sbraccia P. Obesity phenotypes: depot-differences in adipose tissue and their clinical implications. Eat Weight Disord. 2018; 23(1):3-14. 5. Gomez-Hernandez A, Beneit N, Diaz-Castroverde S. Escribano O. 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FUNDING INFORMATION This research was funded by Europees Fonds voor Regionale Ontwikkeling (EFRO), project BriteN 2016. ORCID Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen Amanda J. Kiliaan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7395-5284 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2158-6210 13, 14, 16-26, 29-32 Furthermore, several receptors Nevertheless, We conclude Search strategy We searched PubMed for articles published before Novem- ber 15th, 2019 using relevant keywords, including âonset of puberty and adiposity/obesityâ, âonset of pubertyâ, âchildren with obesityâ, âadipose tissueâ, âchildhood obesityâ, âadiposityâ, âobesityâ, âadipokine(s)â, âHPG axisâ, âadipokines ovary/ova- riesâ, or âadipokines testesâ, either alone or in combination. 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Obesity Reviews. 2020;21:e13005. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/obr.13005 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are gover