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To the Lakota, and other indigenous people on North America's Great Plains, the bison was an essential part of their culture ( expressed in the quote on the previous page). The bison provided meat for nutrition, a hide for clothing and shelter, bones for tools, and fat for soap. The bison was also central to their religious beliefs. So, when European settlers hunted the bison nearly to extinction, Lakota culture suffered. Culture is central to a society and the identity of its people, as well as its continued existence. Therefore, geographers study culture as a way to understand similarities and differences among societies across the world, and in some cases, to help preserve these societies. Analyzing Culture All of a group's learned behaviors, actions, beliefs, and objects are a part of culture. It is a visible force seen in a group's actions, possessions, and influence on the landscape. For example, in a large city you can see people working in offices, factories, and stores, and living in high-rise apartments or suburban homes. You might observe them attending movies, concerts, or sporting events. Culture is also an invisible force guiding people through shared belief systems, customs, and traditions. Culture is learned, in that it develops through experiences, and not merely transmitted through genetics. For example, many people in the United States have developed a strong sense of competitiveness in school and business, and believe that hard work is a key to success. These types of elements, visible and invisible, are cultural traits. A series of interrelated traits make up a cultural complex, such as the process of steps and acceptable behaviors related to greeting a person in different cultures. A single cultural artifact, such as an automobile, may represent many different values, beliefs, behaviors and traditions and be representative of a cultural complex. Since culture is learned there are many ways that one generation passes its culture to the next. Children and adults learn traits three ways: • imitation, as when learning a language by repeating sounds or behaviors from a person or television • informal instruction, as when a parent reminds a child to say "please" • formal instruction, as when students learn history in school 132 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION CULTURAL COMPLEX OF THE AUTOMOBILE The automobile provides much more than just transportation, as it reflects many values that are central to American culture. Origins of Culture The area in which a unique culture or a specific trait develops is a culture hearth. Classical Greece was a culture hearth for democracy more than 2,000 years ago. New York City was a culture hearth for rap music in the 1970s. Geographers study how cultures develop in hearths and diffuse-or spread-to other places. Geographers also study taboos, behaviors heavily discouraged by a culture. For example, many cultures have taboos against eating certain foods, such as pork or insects. What is considered taboo changes over time. In the United States, marriages between Protestants and Catholics were once taboo, but they are not widely opposed now. Traditional, Folk, and Indigenous Cultures With the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, modern transportation and communication connected people as never before and led to extensive cultural mixing, especially as cities have grown. The world prior to this time was very different; however, remnants of the past are still evident in our modern cultures. Traditional, folk, and indigenous cultures share some important characteristics and are often grouped together, but they do have some subtle differences. Traditional Culture Recently, the meanings of traditional, folk, and indigenous culture have begun to merge, causing geographers to debate when each should be used. Increasingly, the term traditional culture is used to encompass all three cultural designations. All three types share the function of passing down long-held beliefs, values, and practices and are generally resistant to rapid changes in their culture. Folk Culture The beliefs and practices of small, homogenous groups of people, often living in rural areas that are relatively isolated and slow to change, are known as folk cultures. Like all cultures, they demonstrate the diverse ways that people have adapted to a physical environment. For example, people around the world learned to make shelters out of available resources, whether 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 133 it was snow or mud bricks or wood. However, people used similar resources such as wood differently. In Scandinavia, people used trees to build cabins. In the American Midwest, people processed trees into boards, built a frame, and attached the boards to it. Many traits of folk culture continue today. Corn was first grown in Mexico around 10,000 years ago, and it is still grown there today. While many elements of folk culture exist side by side with modern culture, there are people whose societies have changed little, if at all, from long ago. These people practice traditional cultures, those which have not been affected by modern technology or influences. They often live in remote regions, such as some small tribes in the Amazon rainforest, and have scant knowledge of the outside world. As the lines continue blurring between cultural designations, the Amish of Pennsylvania are often referenced as both folk and traditional culture. Indigenous Culture When members of an ethnic group reside in their ancestral lands, and typically possess unique cultural traits, such as speaking their own exclusive language, they are considered an indigenous culture. Some indigenous peoples have been displaced from their native lands, but still practice their indigenous culture. Native Americans in the United States, such as the Navajo, have kept indigenous cultural practices. First Nations of Canada, such as the Inuit, have also retained their indigenous culture. Globalization and Popular Culture As a result of the Industrial Revolution, improvements in transportation and communication have shortened the time required for movement, trade, or other forms of interaction between two places. This development, known as space-time compression (see Topics 1.4 and 3.6), has accelerated culture change around the world. In 1817, a freight shipment from Cincinnati needed 52 days to reach New York City. By 1850, because of canals and railroads, it took half that long. And by 1852, it took only 7 days. Today, an airplane flight takes only a few hours, and digital information takes seconds or less. Similar change has occurred on the global scale. People travel freely across the world in a matter of hours, and communication has advanced to a point where people share information instantaneously across the globe. The increased global interaction has had a profound impact on cultures, from spreading English across the world to instant sharing of news, events and music. Globalization specifically refers to the increased integration of the world economy since the 1970s. The process of intensified interaction among peoples, governments, and companies of different countries around the globe has had profound impacts on culture. The culture of the United States is intertwined with globalization. Through the influence of its corporations, Hollywood movies, and government, the United States exerts widespread influence in other countries. But other countries also shape American culture. For example, in 2019, the National Basketball Association included players from 38 countries or territories. When cultural traits- such as clothing, music, movies, and types of 134 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP. EDITION businesses-spread quickly over a large area and are adopted by various groups, they become part of popular culture. Elements of popular culture often begin in urban areas and diffuse quickly through globalization processes such as the media and Internet. These elements can quickly be adopted worldwide, making them part of global culture. People around the world follow European soccer, Indian Bollywood movies, and Japanese animation known as anime. With people in many nations wearing similar clothes, listening to similar music, and eating similar food, popular cultural traits often promote uniformity in beliefs, values, and the cultural landscape across many places The cultural landscape, also known as the built environment (see Topic 3.2), is the modification of the environment by a group and is a visible reflection of that group's cultural beliefs and values. Traditional Culture to Popular Culture Popular culture emphasizes trying what is new rather than preserving what is traditional. Many people, especially older generations or those who follow a folk culture, openly resist the adoption of popular cultural traits. They do this by preserving traditional languages, religions, values, and foods. While older generations often resist the adoption of popular culture, they seldom are successful in keeping their traditional cultures from changing, especially among the young people of their society. One clash between popular and traditional culture is occurring in Brazil. As the population expands to the interior of the rain forest, many indigenous cultures, like the Yanamamo tribe, have more contact with outside groups. Remaining isolated by the forest is becoming increasingly difficult as many young people from the indigenous cultures become exposed to popular culture and begin to integrate into the larger Brazilian society. As the young people leave their communities, they are more likely to accept popular culture at the expense of their indigenous cultural heritage, which threatens the very existence of their folk culture. Traditional culture typically exhibits horizontal diversity, meaning each traditional culture has its own customs and language that makes it distinct from other culture groups. Yet, people people within each group are usually homogeneous, or very similar to each other. By contrast, popular culture typically exhibits vertical diversity, meaning that modern urban societies are usually heterogeneous, or exhibiting differences, within the society and usually contain numerous multiethnic neighborhoods. However, on a global scale popular cultures are relatively similar with the same type of malls, shops, fast food, and clothing. Urban global culture centers are not identical, yet, global cities often do not have as much horizontal diversity across space as folk cultures. 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 135 COMPARING TRADITIONAL AND POPULAR CULTURE Trait Traditional Culture Popular or Global Culture Society • Rural and isolated location • Urban and connected location • Homogeneous and • Diverse and multiethnic indigenous population population • Most people speak an • Many people speak a global indigenous or ethnic local language such as English or language Arabic • Horizontal diversity • Vertical diversity Social • Emphasis on community and • Emphasis on individualism and Structure conformity making choices • Families live close to each • Dispersed families other • Weakly defined gender roles • Well-defined gender roles Diffusion • Relatively slow and limited • Relatively rapid and extensive • Primarily through relocation • Often hierarchical • Oral traditions and stories • Social media and mass media Buildings and • Materials produced locally, • Materials produced in distant Housing such as stone or grass factories, such as steel or glass • Built by community or owner • Built by a business • Similar style for community • Variety of architectural styles • Different between cultures • Similar between cities • Traditional architecture • Postmodern / contemporary architecture Food • Locally produced • Often imported • Choices limited by tradition • Wide range of choice • Prepared by the family or • Purchased in restaurants community Spatial Focus • Local and regional • National and global Artifacts, Mentifacts, and Sociofacts Whether a cultural attribute is considered traditional, folk, indigenous, or popular in nature, it is valuable to differentiate between elements of culture that can be seen and those that can not. There are artifacts that comprise the material culture, which consists of tangible things, or those that can be experienced by the senses. Art, clothing, food, music, sports, and housing types are all tangible elements of culture. Another element of the study of artifacts is understanding the techniques to use or build a specific artifact. Artifacts can be unique to a particular culture, or can be shared. For example, people of all cultures need to communicate through language, yet there are many groups that possess languages unique to their culture. The ability to read, write and understand the English language is an artifact of importance for much of popular global culture. 136 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION Mentifacts comprise a group's nonmaterial culture and consist ofintangible concepts, or those not having a physical presence. Beliefs, values, practices, and aesthetics (pleasing in appearance) determine what a cultural group views as acceptable and desirable. Mentifacts can also be unique or shared. People of many cultures possess an belief in one or many deities, and often the deities are unique to that culture. The belief in a god is a mentifact-the religious building or symbols are artifacts. Cultural groups also possess sociofacts, which are the ways people organize their society and relate to one another. Taken altogether, people tend to see the whole of their culture as greater than the sum of its individual parts. Sociofacts are embodied through families, governments, sports teams, religious organizations, education systems, and other social constructs. As with artifacts and mentifacts, sociofacts may also be unique or similar to other societies. Families are the foundations of most societies, yet what constitutes the structure of a family may vary widely between cultural groups. For example, Western cultures tend to view the nuclear family, consisting of the parents and their children as the basic family unit. By contrast, in many Western African cultures the norm is the extended family, consisting of several generations and other family members such as cousins living under one roof.

Ciao ragazzi in questo video parleremo di integrali vedremo innanzitutto in maniera un po informale di che cosa si tratta poi cercheremo di darne una definizione un po più rigorosa e infine vedremo concretamente come fare a calcolarli supponevo quindi che ci vengano assegnate una certa funzione f dx e un certo intervallo ab sull'asse hicks allora potete pensare all'integrale della funzione f dx sull'intervallo abili come all'area della regione di piano che vi ho colorato qui in giallo e che vedete è sostanzialmente l'area sottesa dal grafico della funzione f dx all'interno dell'inter vallino ap né altre parole l'integrale definito tra e b della funzione f dx integrata index che si indica con questa notazione ci fornisce l'area consegna della regione di piano compresa tra il grafico di f dx l'asse hicks e le rette verticali hicks uguale a da edx uguale sa.ba perché dico aria con il segno ragazzi perché quello che accade è che se il grafico della funzione f dx che io ho preso qui al di sopra della sx fosse invece al di sotto quindi se volete se la funzione f dx fosse negativa nell'inter vallino abi che ci interessa allora avremo che il risultato dell'integrale coinciderebbe con un numero che è l'area cambiata però disegno queste considerazioni sull'interpretazione geometrica dell'integrale ed in particolare sulle eventuali segno da dare all'area riprenderemo meglio in uno dei video successivi e vi saranno più chiare tra un attimo quando ci occuperemo della definizione formale dell'integrale prima però cerchiamo di capire come si chiamano le varie parti che compongono questa notazione l'intervallo avente come estremi a e b lungo qui svolgiamo l'operazione di integrazione prende il nome di intervallo o se volete anche zona di integrazione mentre la funzione f dx che stiamo integrando quindi quella di cui ci interessa l'area del sotto grafico prendendo a me di funzione integrando mentre dell'ics che ci compare qui in fondo a chiusura della notazione ci ricorda che stiamo integrando rispetto alla variabile cerchiamo a questo punto di capire come si fa a definire ha vigorosamente ed integrale e nel fare questo cominciamo considerando il caso di una funzione costante che valga sempre k e che abbia quindi come grafico una retta orizzontale per funzioni di questo tipo quindi funzioni che assumano sempre lo stesso valore all'interno dell'intervallo che ci interessa integrale viene definito dal prodotto della lunghezza dell'intervallo quindi p meno a x il valore costante che la funzione assume all'interno dell'intervallo quindi k e coincide quindi con l'area con segno del rettangolino che si viene a costruire tra il grafico della funzione l'asse hicks e le rette verticali hicks uguale ad a ed hicks uguale a b e capiti anche perché l'area col segno x che vedete b meno a che rappresenta la lunghezza della base viene sicuramente positivo infatti bit è più grande di a mentre il valore k costante che assume la funzione potrebbe anche essere negativo se questa retta orizzontale stesse al di sotto capite dell'asse delle ascisse e quindi quello che accade che il prodotto di queste due quantità ci fornisce l'area del rettangolino se k e maggiore di zero mentre ci fornirebbe l'area del rettangolino cambiata disegno se k fosse una quantità negativa abbiamo quindi visto che definire l'integrale risulta abbastanza semplice se la nostra funzione è costante e risulta un'operazione poco più complicata se la nostra funzione invece di essere costante è costante a tratti le funzioni costanti a tratti dette anche funzioni a scala non sono altro che funzioni come quella che vi ho riportato qui che assumano un certo valore per esempio k con uno in un primo intervallo poi assumono un nuovo valore per esempio k con due in un secondo intervallo e così via per un certo numero di intervalli che io che ho chiamato genericamente n quindi nell'ennesimo intervallino la funzione assumerà il valore k con n capite che a questo punto il nostro intervallo ab illo possiamo pensare come suddiviso in tanti intervalli più piccoli e vedete che ho chiamato hicks con 0 ed hicks con uno gli estremi qui del primo intervallino poi avremo hicks con uno e di xco gli estremi del secondo e così via finché a questo punto l'ultima sarebbe hicks con n e il precedente hicks con è nemmeno uno e naturalmente avremo che hicks con zero coincide con all'inizio ed hicks con n coinciderebbe quindi con b per una funzione di questo tipo quindi per una funzione a scala l'integrale viene definito come la somma algebrica delle aree prese naturalmente consegna dei vari rettangolini che si vengono a creare vedete in corrispondenza di ciascuno dei tratti in cui la funzione risulta costante vedete che i due termini che compaiono moltiplicati all'interno della sommatoria non sono altro che la base è l'altezza presa col segno del jesi mo rettangolino della nostra sequenza di n rettangolini complessivi e quindi fare la sommatoria per i che va da 1 fino ad n significa proprio poi sommare tutti questi contributi tra di loro fin qui quindi è tutto abbastanza easy l'unica differenza tra il primo caso il secondo caso se volete è che invece di avere un unico rettangolino abbiamo di sotto più rettangolini ma si tratta comunque di fare delle aree di rettangoli eventualmente prese e consegnò la faccenda diventa invece molto meno banale quando la nostra funzione non è costante perché a questo punto il sotto grafico vedete è diventato un trappeto ed è già una figura che assomiglia a un trapezio vedete a due lati paralleli ma al posto di avere un lato obliquo cern passatemi il termine un lato storto e questo naturalmente complica la cosa perché non abbiamo più una formula comoda come l'area del rettangolo da poter utilizzare come fare quindi a cavarsela in questo caso l'idea è fondamentalmente quella di andare a considerare delle funzioni a scala che siano sempre maggiori uguali della nostra funzione f dx vedete io qui viene disegnata una che ho chiamato hdx e vedete che sta sempre al di sopra o al limite eventualmente coincide con la nostra funzione f dx e quello che possiamo fare sostanzialmente approssimare il valore dell'area che vogliamo calcolare con l'integrale della funzione a scala verde e questo integrale della funzione a scala verde l'abbiamo definito prima non è altro che la somma delle aree di questi rettangolini prese con il proprio segno più precisamente possiamo dire che l'area del sotto grafico che ci riproponiamo di calcolare deve essere minore o uguale dell'integrale tra i big della funzione a scala hdx ed è anche chiaro che di funzione a scala hdx che siano sempre maggiori uguali della funzione f all'interno dell'intervallo ab non c'è solo questa ce ne sono naturalmente infinite e di queste infinite funzioni come potete notare dando un occhiata questa animazione ce ne sono alcune che approssimano meglio di altre l'area gialla che ci riproponiamo di calcolare e di conseguenza se noi considerassimo l'insieme di queste infinite funzioni e più precisamente l'insieme dei loro integrali ci aspettiamo che l'estremo inferiore di questo insieme coincide sostanzialmente con l'area che vogliamo calcolare e questo perché i ragazzi perché funzioni a scala di questo tipo sostanzialmente approssimano per eccesso la funzione viola e quindi il loro integrale ci fornirà una sovrastima dell'area e quindi se immaginassimo di prendere vi avviate le funzioni a scala che approssimano sempre meglio il comportamento della f ci aspettiamo in tutta risposta che i loro integrale diventino sempre più piccoli cioè sempre più vicini al valore vero dell'area che stiamo cercando di calcolare e quindi capite che il valore dell'area diventa proprio qui il numero a cui questi integrali tendono a mano a mano che miglioriamo l'approssimazione e quindi capite diventa l'estremo inferiore del loro insieme naturalmente lo stesso giochino che noi abbiamo appena fatto con le funzioni hdx che sovrastimano la funzione f1 lo potrebbe fare con delle funzioni a scala tipo la gdx che vi ho disegnato qui che invece sottostimano il valore di f cioè sono delle funzioni a scala che sono sempre minori uguali dalla effe dx è chiaro che similmente a quanto accadeva prima di funzioni gdx di questo tipo ce ne sono infinite e naturalmente alcune approssimeranno meglio di altre l'andamento della funzione f e dunque se consideriamo gli insieme dei loro integrali possiamo pensare al valore dell'area che vogliamo calcolare come all'estremo sud di ore di questo insieme se quindi come spesso accade l'estremo superiori di un insieme coincide con l'estremo inferiore dell'altro allora si dice che la funzione arimany integrabile sull'intervallo a b ed il valore comune è proprio l'integrale della funzione f calcolato sull'intervallo ab cosa che geometricamente possiamo interpretare come la misura nell'area o perché ho detto se come spesso accade questi due valori coincidono perché in realtà potrebbe sembrare scontato che debbano coincidere nel senso che ci si immagina che si all'estremo superiore di questo insieme che l'estremo inferiore di quest'altro insieme sostanzialmente debbano restituire l'area in realtà però ci sono dei casi di funzioni anche limitate ma molto particolari in cui questo non accade se siete curiosi e guardate che sono funzioni comunque molto poco frequenti vi lascio un link nella descrizione qui sotto dove potete approfondire la cosa capito questo vediamo adesso come si fa concretamente a calcolare un integrale e in maniera se volete in un certo senso analoga a quanto accadeva per le derivate per fare il calcolo degli integrali non si sfrutta direttamente la definizione che abbiamo appena dato un po come quando dovete calcolare una derivata e non vi sporcate le mani direttamente con il limite del rapporto incrementale che sarebbe proprio la definizione della derivata ci sono delle strategie più efficaci più rapide se volete per fare questo calcolo ecco qualcosa di simile accade con gli integrali e cerchiamo di capire concretamente come si fa la prima cosa che devo fare se voglio calcolare l'integrale di una certa funzione f dx sull'intervallo ab è quella di trovare un'altra funzione che nell'intervallo ab abbia la nostra fbx come derivata cioè dove trovare una cosiddetta primitiva della funzione f dx una volta trovata e di solito la si indica con f grande se la funzione di partenza la effe piccolo si va a calcolarla nei due estremi di integrazione è una volta che siano questi due valori c'è una volta che abbiamo f grande di b ed f grandi di a è sufficiente sottrarli per trovare proprio il valore dell'integrale quindi fondamentalmente la procedura è basata tre passaggi provo una primitiva la calcolo nei due estremi di integrazione e sottraggo questi due numeri il risultato è proprio il valore dell'integrale per capire meglio la cosa consideriamo subito un esempio e supponiamo quindi di dover calcolare l'integrale tra 0 e 5 d3x quadro index allora per prima cosa dobbiamo trovare una funzione che abbia 3x quadro come derivata nell'intervallo 05 e se ci pensate bene qual è una funzione che a 3x quadro come derivata per esempio la funzione hicks al cubo che noi dobbiamo andare a calcolare negli estremi di integrazione che sono hicks uguale a 5 ed hicks uguale a zero e vedete che per indicare che la dobbiamo calcolare proprio nei due estremi 5 è 0 si utilizza questa notazione con due parentesi quadrate e si riportano gli estremi 1 qui in alto e l'altro qui in basso quindi questa notazione sottende che adesso questo hicks al cubo lo dovremmo calcolare prima i knicks uguale a 5 e poi i knicks uguale a zero e poi dovremmo sottrarre i due valori che otteniamo se quindi lo facciamo concretamente vedete che otteniamo 5 elevato alla terza che non è altro che la primitiva hicks alla terza calcolata mettendo al posto della x5 e gli dobbiamo poi sottrarre sempre la primitiva hicks alla terza calcolata però i knicks uguale a zero cioè mettendo 0 al posto della ics e

Understanding Quantum Theory of Electrons in Atoms The goal of this section is to understand the electron orbitals (location of electrons in atoms), their different energies, and other properties. The use of quantum theory provides the best understanding to these topics. This knowledge is a precursor to chemical bonding. As was described previously, electrons in atoms can exist only on discrete energy levels but not between them. It is said that the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized, that is, it can be equal only to certain specific values and can jump from one energy level to another but not transition smoothly or stay between these levels. The energy levels are labeled with an n value, where n = 1, 2, 3, …. Generally speaking, the energy of an electron in an atom is greater for greater values of n. This number, n, is referred to as the principal quantum number. The principal quantum number defines the location of the energy level. It is essentially the same concept as the n in the Bohr atom description. Another name for the principal quantum number is the shell number. The shells of an atom can be thought of concentric circles radiating out from the nucleus. The electrons that belong to a specific shell are most likely to be found within the corresponding circular area. The further we proceed from the nucleus, the higher the shell number, and so the higher the energy level (Figure 9.4.1). The positively charged protons in the nucleus stabilize the electronic orbitals by electrostatic attraction between the positive charges of the protons and the negative charges of the electrons. So the further away the electron is from the nucleus, the greater the energy it has. This quantum mechanical model for where electrons reside in an atom can be used to look at electronic transitions, the events when an electron moves from one energy level to another. If the transition is to a higher energy level, energy is absorbed, and the energy change has a positive value. To obtain the amount of energy necessary for the transition to a higher energy level, a photon is absorbed by the atom. A transition to a lower energy level involves a release of energy, and the energy change is negative. This process is accompanied by emission of a photon by the atom. The following equation summarizes these relationships and is based on the hydrogen atom: The values nf and ni are the final and initial energy states of the electron. The principal quantum number is one of three quantum numbers used to characterize an orbital. An atomic orbital, which is distinct from an orbit, is a general region in an atom within which an electron is most probable to reside. The quantum mechanical model specifies the probability of finding an electron in the three-dimensional space around the nucleus and is based on solutions of the Schrödinger equation. In addition, the principal quantum number defines the energy of an electron in a hydrogen or hydrogen-like atom or an ion (an atom or an ion with only one electron) and the general region in which discrete energy levels of electrons in a multi-electron atoms and ions are located. Another quantum number is l, the angular momentum quantum number. It is an integer that defines the shape of the orbital, and takes on the values, l = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1. This means that an orbital with n = 1 can have only one value of l, l = 0, whereas n = 2 permits l = 0 and l = 1, and so on. The principal quantum number defines the general size and energy of the orbital. The l value specifies the shape of the orbital. Orbitals with the same value of l form a subshell. In addition, the greater the angular momentum quantum number, the greater is the angular momentum of an electron at this orbital. Orbitals with l = 0 are called s orbitals (or the s subshells). The value l = 1 corresponds to the p orbitals. For a given n, p orbitals constitute a p subshell (e.g., 3p if n = 3). The orbitals with l = 2 are called the d orbitals, followed by the f-, g-, and h-orbitals for l = 3, 4, 5, and there are higher values we will not consider. There are certain distances from the nucleus at which the probability density of finding an electron located at a particular orbital is zero. In other words, the value of the wavefunction ψ is zero at this distance for this orbital. Such a value of radius r is called a radial node. The number of radial nodes in an orbital is n – l – 1. Consider the examples in Figure 9.4.2. The orbitals depicted are of the s type, thus l = 0 for all of them. It can be seen from the graphs of the probability densities that there are 1 – 0 – 1 = 0 places where the density is zero (nodes) for 1s (n = 1), 2 – 0 – 1 = 1 node for 2s, and 3 – 0 – 1 = 2 nodes for the 3s orbitals. The s subshell electron density distribution is spherical and the p subshell has a dumbbell shape. The d and f orbitals are more complex. These shapes represent the three-dimensional regions within which the electron is likely to be found. Principal quantum number (n) & Orbital angular momentum (l): The Orbital Subshell: https://youtu.be/ms7WR149fAY If an electron has an angular momentum (l ≠ 0), then this vector can point in different directions. In addition, the z component of the angular momentum can have more than one value. This means that if a magnetic field is applied in the z direction, orbitals with different values of the z component of the angular momentum will have different energies resulting from interacting with the field. The magnetic quantum number, called ml, specifies the z component of the angular momentum for a particular orbital. For example, for an s orbital, l = 0, and the only value of ml is zero. For p orbitals, l = 1, and ml can be equal to –1, 0, or +1. Generally speaking, ml can be equal to –l, –(l – 1), …, –1, 0, +1, …, (l – 1), l. The total number of possible orbitals with the same value of l (a subshell) is 2l + 1. Thus, there is one s-orbital for ml = 0, there are three p-orbitals for ml = 1, five d-orbitals for ml = 2, seven f-orbitals for ml = 3, and so forth. The principal quantum number defines the general value of the electronic energy. The angular momentum quantum number determines the shape of the orbital. And the magnetic quantum number specifies orientation of the orbital in space, as can be seen in Figure 9.4.3. Figure 9.4.4 illustrates the energy levels for various orbitals. The number before the orbital name (such as 2s, 3p, and so forth) stands for the principal quantum number, n. The letter in the orbital name defines the subshell with a specific angular momentum quantum number l = 0 for s orbitals, 1 for p orbitals, 2 for d orbitals. Finally, there are more than one possible orbitals for l ≥ 1, each corresponding to a specific value of ml. In the case of a hydrogen atom or a one-electron ion (such as He+, Li2+, and so on), energies of all the orbitals with the same n are the same. This is called a degeneracy, and the energy levels for the same principal quantum number, n, are called degenerate energy levels. However, in atoms with more than one electron, this degeneracy is eliminated by the electron–electron interactions, and orbitals that belong to different subshells have different energies. Orbitals within the same subshell (for example ns, np, nd, nf, such as 2p, 3s) are still degenerate and have the same energy. While the three quantum numbers discussed in the previous paragraphs work well for describing electron orbitals, some experiments showed that they were not sufficient to explain all observed results. It was demonstrated in the 1920s that when hydrogen-line spectra are examined at extremely high resolution, some lines are actually not single peaks but, rather, pairs of closely spaced lines. This is the so-called fine structure of the spectrum, and it implies that there are additional small differences in energies of electrons even when they are located in the same orbital. These observations led Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck to propose that electrons have a fourth quantum number. They called this the spin quantum number, or ms. The other three quantum numbers, n, l, and ml, are properties of specific atomic orbitals that also define in what part of the space an electron is most likely to be located. Orbitals are a result of solving the Schrödinger equation for electrons in atoms. The electron spin is a different kind of property. It is a completely quantum phenomenon with no analogues in the classical realm. In addition, it cannot be derived from solving the Schrödinger equation and is not related to the normal spatial coordinates (such as the Cartesian x, y, and z). Electron spin describes an intrinsic electron “rotation” or “spinning.” Each electron acts as a tiny magnet or a tiny rotating object with an angular momentum, even though this rotation cannot be observed in terms of the spatial coordinates. The magnitude of the overall electron spin can only have one value, and an electron can only “spin” in one of two quantized states. One is termed the α state, with the z component of the spin being in the positive direction of the z axis. This corresponds to the spin quantum number ms=12. The other is called the β state, with the z component of the spin being negative and ms=−12. Any electron, regardless of the atomic orbital it is located in, can only have one of those two values of the spin quantum number. The energies of electrons having ms=−12 and ms=12 are different if an external magnetic field is applied. Figure 9.4.5 illustrates this phenomenon. An electron acts like a tiny magnet. Its moment is directed up (in the positive direction of the z axis) for the 12 spin quantum number and down (in the negative z direction) for the spin quantum number of −12. A magnet has a lower energy if its magnetic moment is aligned with the external magnetic field (the left electron) and a higher energy for the magnetic moment being opposite to the applied field. This is why an electron with ms=12 has a slightly lower energy in an external field in the positive z direction, and an electron with ms=−12 has a slightly higher energy in the same field. This is true even for an electron occupying the same orbital in an atom. A spectral line corresponding to a transition for electrons from the same orbital but with different spin quantum numbers has two possible values of energy; thus, the line in the spectrum will show a fine structure splitting. The Pauli Exclusion Principle An electron in an atom is completely described by four quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms. The first three quantum numbers define the orbital and the fourth quantum number describes the intrinsic electron property called spin. An Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli formulated a general principle that gives the last piece of information that we need to understand the general behavior of electrons in atoms. The Pauli exclusion principle can be formulated as follows: No two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the same set of all the four quantum numbers. What this means is that electrons can share the same orbital (the same set of the quantum numbers n, l, and ml), but only if their spin quantum numbers ms have different values. Since the spin quantum number can only have two values (±12), no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital (and if two electrons are located in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins). Therefore, any atomic orbital can be populated by only zero, one, or two electrons. The properties and meaning of the quantum numbers of electrons in atoms are briefly

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110.31.b.17.C

Topic: Reading/Vocabulary Development

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