A system of philosophical and ethical teachings emphasizing morality, social harmony, and good governance. The Song Dynasty utilized Confucianism to maintain and justify its rule.

A complex system of government officials and departments that administer the affairs of an empire. The Song Dynasty employed an imperial bureaucracy.

A Confucian virtue emphasizing respect, obedience, and care for one's parents and ancestors. This was a significant cultural tradition in East Asia.

A revival and reinterpretation of Confucianism that emerged in Song China, incorporating elements of Buddhism and Daoism. It spread to neighboring regions.

A fast-growing and drought-resistant strain of rice introduced to China from Vietnam (Champa). It led to increased agricultural productivity in Song China.

An extensive canal system in China, expanded during the Song Dynasty, facilitating trade and transportation within the empire.

An Islamic state led by a caliph, who is considered the successor to the Prophet Muhammad and holds both religious and political authority. The Abbasid Caliphate fragmented during this period.

An Islamic state led by a sultan, typically a military leader. Examples include the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and the Delhi Sultanates, which emerged as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented.

Nomadic groups from Central Asia who converted to Islam and played a significant role in the political landscape of the Islamic world. They dominated many of the new Islamic political entities that emerged after the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate.

A renowned center of learning established in Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, where scholars from various backgrounds translated and preserved ancient texts, contributing to intellectual innovations and cultural transfers.

A Hindu devotional movement that emphasized a personal relationship with a chosen deity. It shaped societies in South Asia during this period.

A mystical branch of Islam emphasizing spiritual experience and a direct connection with God. It also influenced societies in South and Southeast Asia.

A powerful Hindu empire in South India, known for its wealth and trade.

A maritime empire based on the island of Sumatra, controlling key trade routes in Southeast Asia, including the Strait of Malacca. It derived wealth from trade.

A Mesoamerican people who established a powerful tributary empire in central Mexico, known for their complex social structure and religious practices.

A major Mississippian culture urban center located near present-day St. Louis, Missouri. It was known for its large-scale maize agriculture and monumental architecture, indicating a complex society.

A powerful state in southern Africa, known for its impressive stone architecture, including the Great Enclosure. It was part of the diverse state systems in Africa.

A system where monarchs shared power with regional lords and nobles, leading to political fragmentation. Europe was characterized by decentralized monarchies during this period.

A social and political system where lords granted land to vassals in exchange for military service and loyalty. It was a defining feature of medieval Europe.

An economic system in medieval Europe, where peasants worked on land owned by a lord in exchange for protection and a share of the harvest.

A system of labor in medieval Europe where peasants (serfs) were bound to the land and obligated to work for a lord.

A major trading city along the Silk Road, located in present-day Xinjiang, China.

A prominent city in Central Asia, strategically located on the Silk Road, serving as a center of trade, culture, and learning.

Roadside inns along trade routes, providing lodging and facilities for merchants and travelers.

Financial instruments representing a promise to pay a specified amount of money at a future date, used to facilitate trade and reduce the need to carry large amounts of cash.

Institutions providing financial services such as loans, money exchange, and deposits, facilitating trade and commerce.

The introduction of paper currency by the Song Dynasty in China, simplifying transactions and contributing to economic growth.

The successor states that emerged after the division of the Mongol Empire, including the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanate, the Yuan Dynasty, and the Chagatai Khanate.

A writing system adopted by the Mongols, adapted from the Uyghurs, further demonstrating cultural transfers encouraged by the Mongol Empire.

A navigational instrument used to determine latitude by measuring the altitude of celestial bodies, essential for maritime navigation.

Traditional sailing vessels used extensively in the Indian Ocean trade, known for their durability and suitability for long-distance voyages.

A powerful trading state located on the Malay Peninsula, controlling the strategic Strait of Malacca.

A community of people who have migrated from their homeland and settled in another region, often maintaining cultural and economic ties to their place of origin.

A Chinese admiral who led seven large-scale maritime expeditions during the Ming Dynasty, demonstrating China's maritime capabilities.

Seasonal winds in the Indian Ocean that aided navigation and facilitated trade.

An innovation that facilitated long-distance travel through the Sahara Desert, making the camel a crucial pack animal for trans-Saharan trade.

Organized groups of merchants and travelers journeying together for safety and efficiency, often used for trans-Saharan trade.

The diffusion of bananas from Southeast Asia to Africa through trade networks, demonstrating the environmental effects of exchange.

The spread of Buddhism from India to China and other parts of East Asia through trade and cultural exchange, influencing religious beliefs and practices.

A Venetian merchant and explorer who traveled to China during the Yuan Dynasty, his accounts provided Europeans with valuable insights into Asian cultures and trade.

A powerful West African empire known for its wealth from the trans-Saharan gold trade.

Government officials holding specialized administrative positions within a state hierarchy.

A prolonged conflict between the Safavid Empire (Shi'a Muslim) and the Ottoman Empire (Sunni Muslim) fueled by religious and political differences.

The adoption and use of gunpowder, originally from China, for cannons and firearms, played a significant role in imperial expansion.

A system in the Ottoman Empire where Christian boys were recruited, converted to Islam, and trained for military and administrative service.

A system in the Mughal Empire where local officials (zamindars) were responsible for collecting taxes from peasants and remitting them to the central government.

A system where the government auctioned off the right to collect taxes in a specific region to the highest bidder.

The belief that monarchs derive their authority to rule directly from God, used to legitimize their power in European monarchies.

Impressive examples of Mughal architecture, showcasing the grandeur and artistic achievements of the empire.

An extravagant palace built by King Louis XIV to reflect his power and wealth and used as a symbol of his authority.

A religious movement in Europe that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to a split in Christianity and the emergence of various Protestant denominations.

A monotheistic religion founded in Punjab, blending elements of Hinduism and Islam.

The blending of different religious or cultural beliefs and practices, resulting in a new hybrid belief system.

A branch of Islam, followed by the Safavid Empire, that believes Ali, the Prophet Muhammad's son-in-law, and his descendants are the rightful successors to the Prophet.

A branch of Islam, followed by the Ottoman Empire, that believes the first four caliphs after the Prophet Muhammad are the rightful successors.

A people from northeast China who conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty.

A Muslim dynasty that ruled a vast empire in South and Central Asia, known for its cultural achievements and administrative systems.

A Turkish empire that controlled much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, known for its military strength and administrative efficiency.

A Shi'a Muslim dynasty that ruled Persia, known for its art and architecture, as well as its conflict with the Ottoman Empire.

A small, maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese, well-suited for exploration and coastal trade.

A triangular sail that allowed ships to sail against the wind, adopted by European explorers from Arab sailors.

A network of trading posts established by the Portuguese in Africa and Asia to control trade routes and gain profits.

Spanish-sponsored voyages led by Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, dramatically boosting European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

Northern Atlantic crossings undertaken by these nations, usually to discover alternate trade routes to Asia.

The exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres after European contact.

Organisms like mosquitoes and rats that transmit diseases, unintentionally brought to the Americas by Europeans.

Diseases prevalent in a specific region or population, significantly reducing indigenous populations in the Americas after being introduced by Europeans.

Crops that form the basis of a population's diet, such as maize and potatoes, which became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Crops grown primarily for sale rather than for local consumption, like sugar and tobacco, cultivated on plantations using forced labor.

Animals tamed and bred for human use, such as horses, pigs, and cattle, introduced by Europeans to the Americas.

African slaves brought food crops, including okra and rice, to the Americas, adding to the dietary diversity of the region.

Policies that restrict or minimize trade with other nations.

Empires built and maintained through sea power and control of trade routes.

An African state whose involvement in maritime trade networks led to an increase in its power and influence.

A traditional Andean labor system where communities contributed labor to public works projects.

A labor system where Spanish colonists were granted the right to demand labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christian instruction.

A system of large estates in the Americas where indigenous and mixed-race laborers worked for a Spanish owner.

Implemented isolationist trade policies to limit the influence of European trade and culture following the voyages of Zheng He in the 1400s.

Merchants active in the Indian Ocean trade network who came from various regions in Asia, contributing to the continued flourishing of these networks.

Economic policies aimed at maximizing a nation's wealth and power through the accumulation of gold and silver and the control of trade.

Businesses where multiple investors pool their resources and share profits and losses, minimizing the risk for individual investors.

A complex trading system that emerged across the Atlantic Ocean involving the exchange of goods, the flow of wealth, and the forced migration of enslaved Africans to the Americas.

Companies granted exclusive trading rights in specific regions by European rulers.

Increased global demand for goods resulted in intensified peasant and artisan labor in various regions, including silk production in China.

Conflict between European powers and Muslim traders in the Indian Ocean, driven by competition for control of valuable trade routes and resources.

Uprisings of Pueblo people against Spanish rule in the Americas, reflecting local resistance to state expansion and centralization.

Conflicts between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal Empire in India, showcasing resistance against expanding state power on a local level.

Organized resistance by enslaved people against their enslavers in North America, challenging established authorities.

The dynasty that ruled China after the Ming, known for its territorial expansion and its policies towards different ethnic groups.

A hierarchical system of racial classification that developed in Spanish America, based on the proportion of European, indigenous, and African ancestry.

The forced removal of Jewish populations from Spain and Portugal, highlighting how states sometimes suppressed diversity and limited certain groups' roles.

The Ottoman Empire's policy of tolerating and accepting Jewish communities, contrasting with the policies of some European states.

A class of aristocratic landowners in Russia, representing existing elites whose power fluctuated with the rise of increasingly powerful monarchs.

The forced migration of millions of Africans across the Atlantic to work as slaves in the Americas, driven by the demand for labor on plantations.

Methods emphasizing observation and experimentation to gain knowledge, applied by Enlightenment philosophies to understand the natural world and human relationships.

Rights inherent to all humans, regardless of social status or government, including the right to life, liberty, and property.

An agreement between the government and the governed, establishing the rights and responsibilities of each, promoting the idea that government legitimacy comes from the consent of the people.

A principle asserting that the people are the ultimate source of political power and that governments derive their legitimacy from the consent of the governed.

A strong identification with and loyalty to one's nation or ethnic group, often accompanied by the desire for self-determination.

The right to vote in political elections, influenced by Enlightenment ideas and contributing to expanded suffrage.

A period of intellectual and philosophical change in Europe emphasizing reason, individualism, and the questioning of traditional authority.

The successful rebellion of the thirteen British colonies in North America against British rule, resulting in the establishment of the United States of America.

A revolutionary document that declared the separation of the thirteen American colonies from Great Britain, emphasizing natural rights and popular sovereignty.

A foundational document of the French Revolution, proclaiming the fundamental rights and freedoms of all citizens.

Movements advocating for the unification of fragmented regions or the liberation of nations from foreign rule.