What is the result of a chromosomal duplication event?

An extra copy of a chromosome segment

Rearrangement of chromosome structure

Breaking apart of the chromosome

In a structural rearrangement, what happens during a reciprocal translocation?

Segments from two different chromosomes are exchanged

A segment is inverted within the same chromosome

One chromosome is completely deleted

Chromosome structural rearrangements

Bacterial Cell One of the very first organisms to evolve on earth was probably a unicellular organism, like modern bacteria. Ever since then, life has evolved into a multitude of life forms over many millennia. However, we can still trace our ancestry back to this single-celled organism. Bacteria Definition “Bacteria are unicellular organisms belonging to the prokaryotic group where the organisms lack a few organelles and a true nucleus”. Internal Structures • Cytoplasm: A gel-like substance that fills the cell, containing water, enzymes, nutrients, and waste, where metabolic activities occur. • Nucleoid: A region within the cytoplasm that houses the bacterial chromosome, a single, continuous circle of DNA. • Ribosomes: Responsible for synthesizing proteins within the cell. • Plasmids: Small, circular, extra-chromosomal DNA molecules that can provide advantageous traits, such as antibiotic resistance. • Mesosomes: (Optional, less prominent in some views) Folds in the plasma membrane that are believed to be involved in cell division and respiration. Outer Structures & Layers • Cell Wall: A rigid outer layer composed of peptidoglycan that provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and protects against osmotic lysis. Capsule: (Optional) A sticky outer layer of polysaccharide that can help the bacteria adhere to surfaces, protect against phagocytosis by the immune system, and serve as a food reserve. • Plasma Membrane: A selectively permeable barrier that regulates the passage of nutrients and waste products into and out of the cell. Appendages • Flagella: Long, whip-like structures that provide motility, allowing the bacterium to move through its environment. • Pili (and Fimbriae): Hair-like protein appendages. Pili are longer and involved in bacterial conjugation (transfer of genetic material), while the shorter, more numerous fimbriae primarily function in attachment to host cells or surfaces.

The cytoskeleton is a network of thin tubes and filaments that crisscrosses the cytosol. The tubes and filaments give shape to the cell from the inside in the same way that tent poles support the shape of a tent. The cytoskeleton also acts as a system of internal tracks, shown in Figure 4-18, on which items move around inside the cell. The cytoskeleton’s functions are based on several struc- tural elements. Three of these are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments, shown and described in Table 4-2. Microtubules Microtubules are hollow tubes made of a protein called tubulin. Each tubulin molecule consists of two slightly different subunits. Microtubules radiate outward from a central point called the centrosome near the nucleus. Microtubules hold organelles in place, maintain a cell’s shape, and act as tracks that guide organelles and molecules as they move within the cell. Microfilaments Finer than microtubules, microfilaments are long threads of the beadlike protein actin and are linked end to end and wrapped around each other like two strands of a rope. Microfilaments con- tribute to cell movement, including the crawling of white blood cells and the contraction of muscle cells. Intermediate Filaments Intermediate filaments are rods that anchor the nucleus and some other organelles to their places in the cell. They maintain the inter- nal shape of the nucleus. Hair-follicle cells produce large quantities of intermediate filament proteins. These proteins make up most of the hair shaft. 84 CHAPTER 4 TABLE 4-2 The Structure of the Cytoskeleton Property Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Structure hollow tubes made of two strands of intertwined protein fibers coiled into coiled protein protein cables Protein subunits tubulin, with two subunits: å actin one of several types of and ∫ tubulin fibrous proteins Main function maintenance of cell shape; cell maintenance and changing of maintenance of cell shape; motility (in cilia and flagella); cell shape; muscle contraction; anchor nucleus and other chromosome movement; movement of cytoplasm; cell organelles; maintenance of organelle movement motility; cell division shape of nucleus Shape Microtubules provide a path for organelles and molecules as they move throughout the cell. FIGURE 4-18 Microtubules Nucleus Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion Ribosomes Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 85 1. Explain how the fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane. 2. List three cellular functions that occur in the nucleus. 3. Describe the organelles that are found in a eukaryotic cell. 4. Identify two characteristics that make mitochon- dria different from other organelles. 5. Contrast three types of cytoskeletal fibers. CRITICAL THINKING 6. Relating Concepts If a cell has a high energy requirement, would you expect the cell to have many mitochondria or few mitochondria? Why? 7. Analyzing Information How do scientists think that mitochondria originated? Why? 8. Analyzing Statements It is not completely accurate to say that organelles are floating freely in the cytosol. Why not? SECTION 3 REVIEW During cell division, centrioles organize microtubules that pull the chromosomes (orange) apart. The centrioles are at the center of rays of microtubules, which have been stained green with a fluorescent dye. FIGURE 4-20 Cilia and Flagella Cilia (SIL-ee-uh) and flagella (fluh-JEL-uh) are hairlike structures that extend from the surface of the cell, where they assist in movement. Cilia are short and are present in large numbers on certain cells, whereas flagella are longer and are far less numerous on the cells where they occur. Cilia and flagella have a membrane on their outer surface and an internal structure of nine pairs of micro- tubules around two central tubules, as Figure 4-19 shows. Cilia on cells in the inner ear vibrate and help detect sound. Cilia cover the surfaces of many protists and “row” the protists through water like thousands of oars. On other protists, cilia sweep water and food particles into a mouthlike opening. Many kinds of protists use flagella to propel themselves, as do human sperm cells. Centrioles Centrioles consist of two short cylinders of microtubules at right angles to each other and are situated in the cytoplasm near the nuclear envelope. Centrioles occur in animal cells, where they organize the microtubules of the cytoskeleton during cell division, as shown in Figure 4-20. Plant cells lack centrioles. Basal bodies have the same structure that centrioles do. Basal bodies are found at the base of cilia and flagella and appear to organize the devel- opment of cilia and flagella.

LESSON 3 Characteristics of Living Things Learning Objectives • Describe each characteristic of life • Relate each characteristic of life with how first forms of life evolved What sets living things apart from nonliving things? Organisms are equipped with different characteristics that allow them to grow, adapt, survive, and perpetuate. These include the ability to metabolize, respond to stimuli, interact, and reproduce, among others What are the characteristics of life? Try to look at your surroundings and identify the living things that you see. You have probably identified a lot. Many scientists believe that there are more than 10 million kinds of living things that exist on Earth today. But the question is, how can something be considered living? There are certain characteristics that all living things exhibit: the characteristics of life. Living things are made up of cells. They metabolize, grow and develop, respond to stimulus, adapt to their environment, and reproduce. Living Things Are Made up of Cells All living things are made up of cells. Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. Each cell contains materials that carry out basic life processes such as respiration. In the 1600s, an argument against the theory of spontaneous generation was made. Italian physician and biologist Francesco Redi disproved the theory that all living things come from nonliving things. Cells have different properties and characteristics. The cell theory describes the properties of all cells. There are three tenets of the cell theory: 1. The cell is the basic unit of life. 2. All living things are composed of one or more cells. 3. All cells arise from preexisting cells. The discovery of the cell is largely attributed to Robert Hooke. Upon examining a piece of cork using a microscope that he built, Hooke observed tiny compartments that he called "cells" (from the Latin word cella, meaning "little room"). Matthias Schleiden suggested that all structural parts of plants are made up of cells. In 1839, Theodore Schwann stated that along with plants, all animals were composed of cells. From these conclusions about plants and animals, advancement on the study of animal parts and functions began. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow included the idea that all cells came from preexisting cells. Some living things are made up of only single cells. Single-celled or unicellular organisms include bacteria, some protists, and some fungi. Even though composed of single cells, these organisms carry out all the functions necessary for life. Most living things such as animals and plants, are multicellular organisms. They are composed of many cells, which are grouped together and perform specific tasks in the body. In different organisms, cells also vary in sizes, shapes, parts, and functions. There are two kinds of organisms according to their cell structure, the prokaryotes and eukaryotes (figure 5-3). Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, and all other organelles. Its name comes from the Greek words pro, which means "before," and karyon, which means "nut or kernel." Eukaryotes are organisms with cells that contain membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell contains the genetic material (DNA), enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Other membrane-bound organelles are mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and chloroplast found in photosynthetic organisms such as algae and plants. There are also unicellular eukaryotes known as protozoa. All other eukaryotes are multicellular organisms, such as plants, animals, and fungi. Living Things Metabolize Essential chemical reactions in life can be best described as building up (anabolism) and breaking down (catabolism) processes. In anabolism, the substances needed by organisms to grow, store energy, and repair tissues are synthesized. In contrast in catabolism, some complex substances are broken down, releasing the energy stored in their molecules. This happens in food digestion. This chemical building up and breaking down processes are collectively called metabolism. Metabolism, from the Greek word metabole meaning "change," is the sum total of all the life-sustaining chemical reactions in living things. It allows living things to grow, maintain their structures and functions, and respond to stimuli. Living Things Grow and Develop Growth and development are not new concepts to many. In all living things, growth involves the increase in one's size or height. However, growth is not just an increase in physical structure. It also involves complex changes in an organism. Growth and development occur rapidly from younger stages of life to maturity. In humans, animals, and plants, distinct changes brought by growth and development can be dearly identified. Microorganisms such as bacteria also undergo growth and development until they reach their maximum size and maturity. A life span is the average length of time a aving thing can live. Living things have different life spans. Humans have average life spectancy of 60 to 70 years, while some plants, such as the narra trees, can live for more than 100. Living Things Respond to Stimuli All living things respond to stimuli the environment. This responsiveness Increases survivability. Stimulus (plural: uli) is any signal or change in he environment of an organism that produces a response or reaction from that organism. Responses to stimuli depend on an organism's need. Responding to stimuli also maintains homeostasis in living things. Homeostasis is the internal balance of a body system. This balance is needed for the proper function and regulation of the living thing's body. For example, when a person is in a warmer environment, the body sweats, keeping the body maintain a temperature suited for the normal function of the body. Living Things Interact No living thing can live alone. Interaction among organisms is simultaneously happening on Earth. From the smallest microorganisms to the biggest organism, and from the North Pole to the South Pole of Earth, all are connected in one living system. An ecosystem is formed when a community of organisms interacts with another community and with their environment. Many processes and interactions, such as in a feeding relationship, life cycle, and the exchange of gases between plants and animals, occur in the ecosystem. These are some of the important processes needed to maintain life on Earth. Living Things Reproduce The ability of living things to produce offspring of their kind is called reproduction. Reproduction is not an individual organism's need, rather, it is for the species' perpetuation. In some cases, animals become extinct because of their inability to reproduce their kind. Higher forms of plants and animals reproduce through sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the union of sex cells or gametes-the egg cell from a female organism and the sperm cell from a male organism. This union gives rise to a new individual with characteristics or traits from both parents. Other simple organisms, such as bacteria and plants, can reproduce asexually. These organisms give rise to a new individual from their body. A bacterial cell divided in two through asexual reproduction gives rise to new bacteria, as shown in figure 5-5. A yeast can form buds that later on become separate individual. Plants grow new plants using their stem, leaf, and roots. Both sexual and asexual reproductions have important functions. In both cases, the genetic material (DNA) is passed on from one generation to the next, ensuring the survival of the species on Earth. 1. Bacteria copy their DNA by starting at any point on the circular chromosomes. 2. The two copies of DNA attach to the inside wall of the bacterial cell. 3. The cell starts to divide, forming a new membrane and cell wall. 4. The bacterial cell splits into two separate cells, each with their own DNA. Living Things Adapt and Evolve All living things can adapt to their environment. This adaptation is necessary for rvival. Adaptation depends on the need of an individual. A polar bear, for example, would not be able to survive in an extremely cold environment without its capacity adapt. Adaptation is any response or reaction toward a stimulus that helps in the survival of an organism. A seed-eating bird will eventually eat a worm when there are seeds to be found. This change in food choice is therefore its adapting mechanism. Prolonged adaptation to certain environments may lead to the gradual evolution of the succeeding generations. Evolution is the gradual change in organisms over a long period in response to changing environment. Living Things Are Organized Life on Earth exhibits organization. The atom is the smallest unit of matter, lowed by molecules, which are combinations of atoms. When these molecules are grouped together, they form a cell. The cell is the basic unit of life. In multicellular organisms, such as plants and animals, cells are grouped as tissues to perform specific Functions. Different tissues can be grouped further and form organs. Organs in animals include the heart, brain, and lungs, among others. The organs form organ systems that makes the function of the body more complex and efficient. Organ systems form the whole organism. All living things exhibit organization, whether they are unicellular or multicellular organisms..

Chromosome structure

Grade 10 ICSE DNA structure and DNA packaging on chromosome

The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane) has several functions. For example, it allows only certain molecules to enter or leave the cell. It separates internal metabolic reactions from the external environment. In addition, the plasma membrane allows the cell to excrete wastes and to interact with its environment. Membrane Lipids The plasma membrane, as well as the membranes of cell organelles, is made primarily of phospholipids. Phospholipids have a polar, hydrophilic (“water-loving”) phosphate head and two nonpolar, hydrophobic (“water-fearing”) fatty acid tails. Water molecules sur- round the plasma membrane. The phospholipids line up so that their heads point outward toward the water and their tails point inward, away from water. The result is a double layer called a phospholipid bilayer, as shown in Figure 4-10. The cell membranes of eukaryotes also contain lipids, called sterols, between the tails of the phospho- lipids. The major membrane sterol in animal cells is cholesterol. Sterols in the plasma membrane make the membrane more firm and prevent the membrane from freezing at low temperatures. SECTION 3 OBJECTIVES ● Describe the structure and function of a cell’s plasma membrane. ● Summarize the role of the nucleus. ● List the major organelles found in the cytosol, and describe their roles. ● Identify the characteristics of mitochondria. ● Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton. VOCABULARY phospholipid bilayer chromosome nuclear envelope nucleolus ribosome mitochondrion endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus lysosome cytoskeleton microtubule microfilament cilium flagellum centriole Cell membranes are made of a phospholipid bilayer. Each phospholipid molecule has a polar “head” and a two-part nonpolar “tail.” FIGURE 4-10 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 78 CHAPTER 4 OUTSIDE OF CELL INSIDE OF CELL 1. Cell-surface marker: Glycoprotein that identifies cell type 3. Enzyme: Assists chemical reactions inside the cell 2. Receptor protein: Recognizes and binds to substances outside the cell 4. Transport protein: Helps substances move across cell membrane Carbohydrate portion Protein portion Phospholipid heads Phospholipid tails Phospholipid Cholesterol bilayer Membrane Proteins Plasma membranes often contain specific proteins embedded within the lipid bilayer. These proteins are called integral proteins. Figure 4-11 shows that some integral proteins, such as cell surface markers, emerge from only one side of the membrane. Others, such as receptor proteins and transport proteins, extend across the plasma membrane and are exposed to both the cell’s interior and exterior environments. Proteins that extend across the plasma membrane are able to detect environmental signals and transmit them to the inside of the cell. Peripheral proteins, such as the enzyme shown in Figure 4-11, lie on only one side of the membrane and are not embedded in it. As Figure 4-11 shows, integral proteins exposed to the cell’s external environment often have carbohydrates attached. These carbohydrates can act as labels on cell surfaces. Some labels help cells recognize each other and stick together. Viruses can use these labels as docks for entering and infecting cells. Integral proteins play important roles in actively transporting molecules into the cell. Some act as channels or pores that allow certain substances to pass. Other integral proteins bind to a mol- ecule on the outside of the cell and then transport it through the membrane. Still others act as sites where chemical messengers such as hormones can attach. Fluid Mosaic Model A cell’s plasma membrane is surprisingly dynamic. Scientists describe the cell membrane as a fluid mosaic. The fluid mosaic model states that the phospholipid bilayer behaves like a fluid more than it behaves like a solid. The membrane’s lipids and pro- teins can move laterally within the bilayer, like a boat on the ocean. As a result of such lateral movement, the pattern, or “mosaic,” of lipids and proteins in the cell membrane constantly changes.

Most of the functions of a eukaryotic cell are controlled by the nucleus, shown in Figure 4-12. The nucleus is filled with a jellylike liquid called the nucleoplasm, which holds the contents of the nucleus and is similar in function to a cell’s cytoplasm. The nucleus houses and protects the cell’s genetic information. The hereditary information that contains the instructions for the structure and function of the organism is coded in the organism’s DNA, which is contained in the nucleus. When a cell is not dividing, the DNA is in the form of a threadlike material called chromatin. When a cell is about to divide, the chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures in the nucleus made of DNA and protein. The nucleus is the site where DNA is transcribed into ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA moves through nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, where, depending on the type of RNA, it carries out its function. Nuclear Envelope The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope is made up of two phos- pholipid bilayers. Covering the surface of the nuclear envelope are tiny, protein-lined holes, which are called nuclear pores. The nuclear pores provide passageways for RNA and other materials to enter and leave the nucleus. Nucleolus Most nuclei contain at least one denser area, called the nucleolus (noo-KLEE-uh-luhs). The nucleolus (plural, nucleoli) is the site where DNA is concentrated when it is in the process of making ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes (RIE-buh-SOHMZ) are organelles made of protein and RNA that direct protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. The nucleus of a cell is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus stores the cell’s DNA. FIGURE 4-12 Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Nuclear pores DNA (chromatin) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 80 CHAPTER 4 MITOCHONDRIA Mitochondria (MIET-oh-KAHN-dree-uh) (singular, mitochondrion) are tiny organelles that transfer energy from organic molecules to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP ultimately powers most of the cell’s chemical reactions. Highly active cells, such as muscle cells, can have hundreds of mitochondria. Cells that are not very active, such as fat-storage cells, have few mitochondria. Like a nucleus, a mitochondrion has an inner and an outer phos- pholipid membrane, as shown in Figure 4-13. The outer membrane separates the mitochondrion from the cytosol. The inner membrane has many folds, called cristae (KRIS-tee). Cristae contain proteins that carry out energy-harvesting chemical reactions. Mitochondrial DNA Mitochondria have their own DNA and can reproduce only by the division of preexisting mitochondria. Scientists think that mito- chondria originated from prokaryotic cells that were incorporated into ancient eukaryotic cells. This symbiotic relationship provided the prokaryotic invaders with a protected place to live and pro- vided the eukaryotic cell with an increased supply of ATP. RIBOSOMES Ribosomes are small, roughly spherical organelles that are respon- sible for building protein. Ribosomes do not have a membrane. They are made of protein and RNA molecules. Ribosome assembly begins in the nucleolus and is completed in the cytoplasm. One large and one small subunit come together to make a functioning ribosome, shown in Figure 4-14. Some ribosomes are free within the cytosol. Others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

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