What is the primary purpose of Command-and-Control strategies?

To enforce specific limits on emissions or pollutant concentrations.

To reduce enforcement costs for regulators.

To allow firms to determine their own emission levels.

To provide incentives for innovation.

A key disadvantage of Command-and-Control strategies is:

They often ignore differences in marginal abatement costs among polluters.

They are too flexible for polluters to comply with

They prioritize cost-effectiveness over environmental outcomes.

They are too flexible They rely entirely on market mechanisms for enforcement.

Why are uniform standards often less efficient compared to policies based on the Equimarginal Principle?

They ignore differences in firms’ marginal abatement costs.

They are difficult for regulators to implement consistently.

A) They focus too much on marginal abatement costs.

They require complex calculations to enforce.

What is the primary challenge in setting the level of environmental standards?

Balancing environmental damages and abatement costs.

Ensuring all pollutants are eliminated completely.

Minimizing enforcement costs for regulators.

Applying the same standards uniformly across all regions.

Command-and-Control strategies

Chapter One: Management Today The challenges of working in the new economy recognize: 1.1 Working Today Talent Talented people- What they know, what they learn and what they can achive The source of organisational performance Develop skills and improve What is intellectual capital The combined brain power and shared knowledge of an organization's employees TO orginzations: Intellectual capital resents a strategic asset as human creativity, insight and decision making can be converted into superior performance To individuals: Intellectual capital is a personal asset, one to be nurtured and continually updated Things evolve, make sure we keep updated Intellectual capital: The package on intellect skills and capabilities that set us apart making us valable to potential employers Maintaining your talent: There is no escaping the fact that your career success will require a lot of initiative, self awareness and continuous learning Technology Tech is in our everyday lives Latest developments Smart phone, smart apparel, smart cars, smart homes We struggle to keep up with social media ana staying connected with messaging, full of email and voicemail What happenings as younger workers advance into management Flexibility Work ethic It is critical to build and maintain a high Tech IQ! What is Tech IQ: The ability to use current technologies at work and in your personal life, combined with the commitment to keep yourself updated as technology continues to evolve Intellectual capi5la is a combination of: Commitment x Competency = Intellectual capital How to make the world a better place Globalisation The worldwide interdependence of resources flows, product markets and business competition Under the influence, government leaders worry and about the competitiveness of nations just as corporate leaders worry about business competitiveness Emerging markets will power global growth over the next 20 years. By 2025 overall global consumption is forecast to reach $62 trillion, twice its 2013 level and fully half of this increase will come from the emerging world Consequence: Going to fast in uses resources, inflation, corporate greed It's cheaper to have things made in different countries (wages are low and going down) Shamrock organization 1 leaf - full time employees- standard career paths 2 leaf - “freelancers” 3 leaf - Part times without benefits (first to lose their jobs when employers face economic difficulties) The rising of emerging markets Now account for 60% of all low and medium technology manufacturing worldwide Total value add in high tech manufacturing from a low 26% in the 1970s to 48% at present China strategy to upgrade its industries and move the manufacturing value ching by prioritising 10 sectors Information technology, robotic, aerospace, maritime equipment, modern railway equipment, alternative energy vehicles, power equipment, agriculture equipment, advanced materials, biopharma and medical products Ethics A code of moral principa;s that sets standards for conduct that is “good” and “right” as well as “bad” and “wrong” Enron company huge corruption even in elections same thing happened with The Mechanism 1.2 - Organizations Organizational Purpose An orgnizations is a collection of people working together to achieve a common purpose Unique social phenomenon that enables its members to perform tasks far beyond the reach of individual accomplishment (synergy) The broad purpose of any orginzation is to provide goods or services of value to customers and clients A clear sense of purpose tied to: Quality of products and services Customer satisfaction Social responsibility Can be an important source of organisational strength and performance advantage All organisations are open systems (Systems that interact with its environment for renewal and growth) Organizations as systems All organizations are open systems that interact with their environment Continual process of obtaining resource inputs-people, information, resources and capital- and transforming them into outputs in the form of finished goods and services for customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organisation is to ask the question: How is the world different because it existed Value Creation: Organisations create value when they use resources well to produce good products and take care of their customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organization is to ask the questions: How is the world different because it existed? The 3 Ps of organizational performance Profit - is the decision economically sound? People - Does the decision treat people with respect and dignity? Planet - Is the decision good for the environment? Productivity: An overall measure of the quantity and quality of work performance with recourse utilisation taken into account Performance effectiveness: An output measure of task or goal accomplishment Performance efficiency: An input measure of the resource costs associated with goal accomplishment. Workplace changes that impact management Focus on valuing human capital Demise of “Command and control” Emphasis on teamwork Pre-eminence of technology New workforce expectations Importance of networking Concern for sustainability 1.3 Managers Importance of human resources and manger People are not ‘costs to be controlled’ High performing organizations treat people as valuable strategic assets Three takeaways 1. Give leaders broad authority 2. Encourage them to think like CEO 3. Challenge strong performers ealy with big opportunities Direct support, supervise and help activate the work efforts of others The people who managers help are the ones whose contributions represent the real work of the organisation Types of managers Line managers are responsible for work activities that directly affect organization’s output Staff managers use technical expertise to advise and support the efforts of line workers Functional managers are responsible for a single area of activity Quality of work life (QWL) An indicator of the overall quality of human experiences in the workplace QWL Indicators Respect Fair pay Safe working conditions Opportunities to learn and use new skills Room to grow and progress in a career Protection of individuals rights The organization as an upside-down pyramid A manager’s job is to support worker’s efforts The best managers are known for helping and supporting Customers at the top served by worker who are supported by managers 1.4 The management Process Managers achieve high performance for their organizations by best utilizing its humans and material resources Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the use of resources to accomplish performance goals All managers are responsible for the four functions The functions are carried on continually Characteristics of managerial work Long hours Intense pace Fragmented and varied tasks Many communication media Filled with interpersonal relationships Managerial agendas and networks Agenda setting Develops action priorities for accomplishing goals and plans Networking Process of building and maintaining positive relationships with people who can help advance agendas Social Capital Capacity to attract support and help from others Learning The change in a behaviour that results from experience Lifelong learning The process of continuously learning from daily experiences and opportunities

The challenges of working in the new economy recognize: 1.1 Working Today Talent Talented people- What they know, what they learn and what they can achive The source of organisational performance Develop skills and improve What is intellectual capital The combined brain power and shared knowledge of an organization's employees TO orginzations: Intellectual capital resents a strategic asset as human creativity, insight and decision making can be converted into superior performance To individuals: Intellectual capital is a personal asset, one to be nurtured and continually updated Things evolve, make sure we keep updated Intellectual capital: The package on intellect skills and capabilities that set us apart making us valable to potential employers Maintaining your talent: There is no escaping the fact that your career success will require a lot of initiative, self awareness and continuous learning Technology Tech is in our everyday lives Latest developments Smart phone, smart apparel, smart cars, smart homes We struggle to keep up with social media ana staying connected with messaging, full of email and voicemail What happenings as younger workers advance into management Flexibility Work ethic It is critical to build and maintain a high Tech IQ! What is Tech IQ: The ability to use current technologies at work and in your personal life, combined with the commitment to keep yourself updated as technology continues to evolve Intellectual capi5la is a combination of: Commitment x Competency = Intellectual capital How to make the world a better place Globalisation The worldwide interdependence of resources flows, product markets and business competition Under the influence, government leaders worry and about the competitiveness of nations just as corporate leaders worry about business competitiveness Emerging markets will power global growth over the next 20 years. By 2025 overall global consumption is forecast to reach $62 trillion, twice its 2013 level and fully half of this increase will come from the emerging world Consequence: Going to fast in uses resources, inflation, corporate greed It's cheaper to have things made in different countries (wages are low and going down) Shamrock organization 1 leaf - full time employees- standard career paths 2 leaf - “freelancers” 3 leaf - Part times without benefits (first to lose their jobs when employers face economic difficulties) The rising of emerging markets Now account for 60% of all low and medium technology manufacturing worldwide Total value add in high tech manufacturing from a low 26% in the 1970s to 48% at present China strategy to upgrade its industries and move the manufacturing value ching by prioritising 10 sectors Information technology, robotic, aerospace, maritime equipment, modern railway equipment, alternative energy vehicles, power equipment, agriculture equipment, advanced materials, biopharma and medical products Ethics A code of moral principa;s that sets standards for conduct that is “good” and “right” as well as “bad” and “wrong” Enron company huge corruption even in elections same thing happened with The Mechanism 1.2 - Organizations Organizational Purpose An orgnizations is a collection of people working together to achieve a common purpose Unique social phenomenon that enables its members to perform tasks far beyond the reach of individual accomplishment (synergy) The broad purpose of any orginzation is to provide goods or services of value to customers and clients A clear sense of purpose tied to: Quality of products and services Customer satisfaction Social responsibility Can be an important source of organisational strength and performance advantage All organisations are open systems (Systems that interact with its environment for renewal and growth) Organizations as systems All organizations are open systems that interact with their environment Continual process of obtaining resource inputs-people, information, resources and capital- and transforming them into outputs in the form of finished goods and services for customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organisation is to ask the question: How is the world different because it existed Michal Porter - Value Chain Value Creation: Organisations create value when they use resources well to produce good products and take care of their customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organization is to ask the questions: How is the world different because it existed? Triple Bottom Line The 3 Ps of organizational performance Profit - is the decision economically sound? People - Does the decision treat people with respect and dignity? Planet - Is the decision good for the environment? Organizational Performance Productivity: An overall measure of the quantity and quality of work performance with recourse utilisation taken into account Performance effectiveness: An output measure of task or goal accomplishment Performance efficiency: An input measure of the resource costs associated with goal accomplishment. Workplace changes that impact management Focus on valuing human capital Demise of “Command and control” Emphasis on teamwork Pre-eminence of technology New workforce expectations Importance of networking Concern for sustainability 1.3 Managers Importance of human resources and manger People are not ‘costs to be controlled’ High performing organizations treat people as valuable strategic assets Three takeaways 1. Give leaders broad authority 2. Encourage them to think like CEO 3. Challenge strong performers easily with big opportunities Direct support, supervise and help activate the work efforts of others The people who managers help are the ones whose contributions represent the real work of the organisation Levels of management Types of managers Line managers are responsible for work activities that directly affect organization’s output Staff managers use technical expertise to advise and support the efforts of line workers Functional managers are responsible for a single area of activity Quality of work life (QWL) An indicator of the overall quality of human experiences in the workplace QWL Indicators Respect Fair pay Safe working conditions Opportunities to learn and use new skills Room to grow and progress in a career Protection of individuals rights The organization as an upside-down pyramid A manager’s job is to support worker’s efforts The best managers are known for helping and supporting Customers at the top served by worker who are supported by managers 1.4 The management Process Managers achieve high performance for their organizations by best utilizing its humans and material resources Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the use of resources to accomplish performance goals All managers are responsible for the four functions The functions are carried on continually Four functions: Planning,organizing, leading and controlling Mintzberg’s 10 Managerial Roles Characteristics of managerial work Long hours Intense pace Fragmented and varied tasks Many communication media Filled with interpersonal relationships Managerial agendas and networks Agenda setting Develops action priorities for accomplishing goals and plans Networking Process of building and maintaining positive relationships with people who can help advance agendas Social Capital Capacity to attract support and help from others Learning The change in a behaviour that results from experience Lifelong learning The process of continuously learning from daily experiences and opportunities Katz’ Essential Managerial Skills

Land warfare is a complex domain that involves the application of military power on the ground to achieve political and strategic objectives. Modern military doctrine, such as that used by the U.S. Army and the Indian Army, categorizes these elements into Combat Power and the Principles of War. 1. The 8 Elements of Combat Power Combat power is the total means of destructive, constructive, and information capabilities that a military unit can apply. It is typically broken down into eight key elements: ElementDescriptionLeadershipThe "multiplier" of all other elements. It provides purpose, direction, and motivation to soldiers.InformationEnables commanders to make informed decisions and creates opportunities to achieve results.Mission CommandThe system used to integrate the other elements. It focuses on decentralized execution based on the commander's intent.Movement & ManeuverThe movement of forces to gain a positional advantage over the enemy to deliver lethal or non-lethal effects.IntelligenceThe understanding of the enemy, terrain, weather, and civil considerations.FiresThe use of weapon systems (artillery, mortars, air support) to create specific lethal or non-lethal effects.SustainmentThe logistics required to maintain operations, including ammunition, fuel, food, and medical support.ProtectionThe preservation of the force so that the commander can apply maximum combat power.2. The Principles of War These are the enduring "rules of thumb" that guide how land forces are employed strategically and tactically: Objective: Direct every operation toward a clearly defined and attainable goal. Offensive: Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. You cannot win by defending alone. Mass: Concentrate the effects of combat power at the most advantageous place and time. Economy of Force: Allocate the minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts so you can "mass" elsewhere. Maneuver: Place the enemy in a position of disadvantage through flexible movement. Unity of Command: Ensure all forces operate under a single responsible commander toward a common objective. Security: Prevent the enemy from gaining an unexpected advantage. Surprise: Strike the enemy at a time, place, or in a manner for which they are unprepared. Simplicity: Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans to minimize confusion in the "fog of war." 3. The Modern Legal Framework Land warfare is also governed by the Law of Land Warfare (International Humanitarian Law), which rests on four pillars: Military Necessity: Actions must be necessary to achieve a legitimate military goal. Distinction: Forces must distinguish between combatants and non-combatants (civilians). Proportionality: The anticipated harm to civilians must not be excessive in relation to the concrete military advantage gained. Unnecessary Suffering: Weapons and methods must not cause gratuitous or superfluous injury. Note: Contemporary land warfare is increasingly "Multi-Domain," meaning land forces must now integrate with cyber, space, and electronic warfare to be effective. , While land warfare uses many tools, the two primary "philosophies" of how to win a war are Attrition and Maneuver. Most modern conflicts are a spectrum of both, but understanding the pure form of each helps explain military strategy. 1. Attrition Warfare: The "Sledgehammer" Attrition warfare is a strategy where one side attempts to win by wearing down the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous losses in personnel, equipment, and supplies. Core Logic: "I have more than you." It assumes that if you can destroy the enemy’s resources faster than they can replace them, you will eventually win. Focus: Firepower and mass. Success is measured by "body counts," equipment destroyed, and the steady seizing of terrain. Command Style: Usually centralized and methodical. It requires strict synchronization of massive resources (artillery, logistics, manpower). Historical Example: The Battle of Verdun (WWI). German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn famously stated his goal was to "bleed France white" by forcing them to defend a position they could not afford to lose, regardless of the cost in lives. 2. Maneuver Warfare: The "Scalpel" Maneuver warfare seeks to shatter the enemy’s moral and physical cohesion—their ability to act as a unified force—rather than simply destroying every soldier. Core Logic: "I am faster and more unpredictable than you." It aims to create a state of chaos where the enemy's leadership can no longer make effective decisions. Focus: Speed, surprise, and dislocation (forcing the enemy to be in the wrong place at the wrong time). The OODA Loop: Developed by Col. John Boyd, this is the heart of maneuver theory. It stands for Observe, Orient, Decide, Act. The goal is to cycle through these steps faster than the enemy, essentially "getting inside" their decision-making process until they collapse from confusion. Historical Example: The 1940 Invasion of France (Blitzkrieg). Instead of fighting a line-by-line battle of attrition, German forces used speed and concentrated armor to bypass strongpoints, cut communication lines, and cause a total systemic collapse of the French military in weeks. 3. Key Differences at a Glance FeatureAttrition WarfareManeuver WarfareObjectivePhysical destruction of the enemy army.Functional/Psychological collapse of the enemy.TargetThe enemy's strength (mass).The enemy's weakness (vulnerability).Primary ToolMassed Firepower.Movement and Tempo.Command"Command Push" (Top-down, rigid)."Recon Pull" (Decentralized, flexible).Success MetricExchange ratios (Kill counts).Disruption and loss of enemy control.4. The Modern Synthesis: "Schwerpunkt" In practice, no army is purely "maneuver" or "attrition." To maneuver successfully, you often need a period of attrition to punch a hole in the enemy's line. A critical concept here is the Schwerpunkt (Center of Gravity/Focus of Effort). A commander identifies the single most important place to strike and concentrates all available "elements of power" there. While the rest of the front might look like attrition, the Schwerpunkt is where the maneuver happens to achieve a breakthrough. Modern Reality: In high-intensity conflicts today (like the war in Ukraine), we see a "return to attrition" because modern sensors (drones, satellites) make it very difficult to achieve the surprise needed for pure maneuver warfare. When you can see everything, it's hard to be "unexpected."

Reading Passage: The Anatomy of a Kill Chain In the lexicon of modern warfare, the term "kill chain" describes the end-to-end process of a military attack, from the initial identification of a target to its eventual destruction and the subsequent evaluation of the strike's effectiveness. Conceptually, the kill chain is a structural model used to understand and optimize the speed and precision of military operations. The fundamental principle of this model is that an attack functions as a sequence of interdependent stages; if any single link in the chain is broken, the entire operation fails. For strategic planners, this creates a dual objective: to accelerate one's own kill chain while simultaneously finding ways to disrupt the adversary's. Strategic Concept: The Kinetic Model (F2T2EA) The traditional military kill chain is often summarized by the acronym F2T2EA, representing a continuous cycle of find, fix, track, target, engage, and assess. The kinetic kill chain begins with Find, the reconnaissance phase where intelligence assets identify a potential target within a theater of operations. Once found, the process moves to Fix, which involves pinning down the target's specific location and ensuring it can be distinguished from friendly forces or non-combatants. Track follows, maintaining a persistent watch on the target's movements to prevent its escape. In the Target phase, commanders select the appropriate weapon system and verify the legality and strategic value of the strike. Engage is the kinetic moment—the actual deployment of ordnance against the objective. Finally, Assess involves battle damage assessment (BDA) to determine if the desired effects were achieved or if further engagement is required. This model emphasizes "compressing the sensor-to-shooter timeline," meaning the faster a military can move through these steps, the more lethal it becomes. The Evolution: The Cyber Kill Chain® As warfare expanded into the digital domain, Lockheed Martin adapted the kinetic model into the Cyber Kill Chain. This framework assists defenders in identifying and stopping Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs). Unlike a physical missile, a cyberattack often unfolds over weeks or months, but the sequential logic remains the same. The model consists of seven distinct stages: Stage Description of Attacker Activity 1. Reconnaissance The harvesting of information. Attackers research targets via social media, public records, and technical scanning to find vulnerabilities. 2. Weaponization Coupling a remote access trojan with an exploit into a deliverable payload (e.g., a malicious PDF or Microsoft Office document). 3. Delivery Transmission of the weapon to the target environment. Common vectors include email attachments, malicious websites, or USB drives. 4. Exploitation The weapon triggers. The code executes on the victim's system, typically by taking advantage of a software or operating system vulnerability. 5. Installation The attacker installs a persistent backdoor or malware on the victim's system, allowing them to maintain access even after a reboot. 6. Command & Control (C2) The compromised system opens a communication channel back to the attacker's server, allowing the intruder to give manual instructions. 7. Actions on Objective The final stage where the attacker achieves their goal, such as data exfiltration, encryption for ransom, or destruction of critical infrastructure. Strategic Implications for Defense The strategic value of the Cyber Kill Chain lies in its ability to provide a roadmap for "proactive defense." By understanding the sequence, security professionals can implement controls at every stage. For instance, robust email filtering can break the chain at the Delivery stage, while endpoint detection can stop the Installation phase. Crucially, the earlier a defender breaks the chain, the lower the cost of mitigation and the lower the risk of damage. If an attacker is stopped during Reconnaissance, they have gained nothing. If they are stopped during Actions on Objective, the damage may already be catastrophic. In both kinetic and cyber environments, the goal is the same: to create a "defensive depth" that makes the cost of a successful attack prohibitively high for the adversary.

L'attentato alle Torri Gemelle dell'11 settembre 2001 è stato orchestrato dall'organizzazione terroristica al-Qaida, guidata da Osama bin Laden. Al-Qaida, un gruppo estremista islamico, aveva l'obiettivo di colpire gli Stati Uniti per una serie di motivi, tra cui la loro presenza militare in Medio Oriente, il sostegno a Israele e le politiche economiche e geopolitiche percepite come oppressive nei confronti dei Paesi musulmani. L'attacco ha coinvolto 19 terroristi, che hanno dirottato quattro aerei commerciali: due hanno colpito le Torri Gemelle a New York, un altro il Pentagono vicino a Washington, D.C., mentre il quarto, United Airlines Flight 93, è precipitato in un campo in Pennsylvania dopo che i passeggeri hanno tentato di riprendere il controllo dell'aereo. Osama bin Laden ha rivendicato la responsabilità dell'attentato, che ha provocato circa 3.000 morti e ha avuto un impatto duraturo sulla politica internazionale, portando alle guerre in Afghanistan e Iraq e a significativi cambiamenti nella sicurezza globale Il fatto che quattro aerei dirottati siano riusciti a deviare dalla loro rotta senza un immediato intervento da parte delle autorità aeree è legato a una serie di fattori: 1. **Dirottamenti inattesi**: Prima dell'11 settembre 2001, il protocollo per gestire i dirottamenti aerei era molto diverso. I dirottamenti aerei, quando accadevano, di solito erano gestiti attraverso negoziazioni e si presumeva che i dirottatori cercassero principalmente attenzione o denaro, non attacchi suicidi. Non c'era una preparazione specifica per l'eventualità che gli aerei venissero usati come armi. 2. **Interruzione delle comunicazioni**: I dirottatori hanno spento i transponder sugli aerei (dispositivi che inviano segnali radar con informazioni su altitudine e posizione), rendendo difficile per i controllori del traffico aereo tracciare con precisione gli aerei. Gli aerei risultavano ancora visibili sui radar primari, ma senza i dati specifici del transponder era difficile capire immediatamente che c'era una deviazione fuori rotta. 3. **Tempo di reazione**: Gli eventi si sono svolti in un breve arco di tempo. I primi segni di problemi sui voli sono emersi intorno alle 8:14 (con l'American Airlines Flight 11), e il primo schianto contro la Torre Nord è avvenuto alle 8:46. Tra l'inizio dei dirottamenti e gli impatti, il tempo per reagire è stato limitato. La portata dell'attacco era senza precedenti, e nessuno si aspettava che i dirottatori avrebbero usato gli aerei come armi contro obiettivi civili. 4. **Coordination failures**: Anche se ci sono stati segnali di problemi, la comunicazione tra le varie agenzie coinvolte (Federal Aviation Administration, NORAD, ecc.) non era ottimale. La procedura per attivare la difesa aerea in caso di dirottamento era complessa, e la possibilità che aerei civili venissero utilizzati come armi suicide non era contemplata nei protocolli. 5. **NORAD e tempi di risposta**: Il NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command), incaricato della difesa aerea, aveva una capacità limitata di intercettare rapidamente aerei dirottati nello spazio aereo interno. Prima dell'11 settembre, le operazioni di difesa erano concentrate su possibili minacce esterne, e non su attacchi interni. Anche quando i caccia furono inviati, era troppo tardi per impedire gli impatti. Questi fattori, combinati con l'incredulità che un tale attacco potesse realmente accadere, hanno reso possibile che quattro aerei fossero dirottati e usati come armi senza un intervento preventivo efficace. Dopo l'11 settembre, furono apportati significativi cambiamenti ai protocolli di sicurezza aerea per prevenire simili attacchi in futuro. L'idea che l'11 settembre abbia fornito un "pretesto" per attaccare l'Afghanistan è stata ipotizzata da diverse teorie del complotto e punti di vista critici sulla politica estera degli Stati Uniti. Tuttavia, è importante distinguere tra i fatti documentati e le ipotesi non verificate. ### Fatti documentati: 1. **Al-Qaida e Osama bin Laden**: Gli attacchi dell'11 settembre sono stati rivendicati da al-Qaida, che aveva il suo quartier generale in Afghanistan sotto la protezione del regime talebano. Gli Stati Uniti hanno chiesto ai talebani di consegnare Osama bin Laden, ma il governo talebano ha rifiutato. Questo ha portato all'intervento militare in Afghanistan con l'obiettivo dichiarato di smantellare al-Qaida e rimuovere i talebani dal potere. 2. **Legittimazione internazionale**: L'invasione dell'Afghanistan è stata ampiamente appoggiata a livello internazionale, con il sostegno delle Nazioni Unite e della NATO. Il Consiglio di Sicurezza delle Nazioni Unite ha approvato risoluzioni che condannavano gli attacchi e riconoscevano il diritto di difesa degli Stati Uniti. ### Teorie del complotto: Alcuni teorici sostengono che l'11 settembre potrebbe essere stato usato come pretesto per giustificare una guerra che rientrava in più ampi interessi geopolitici. Secondo questa visione, l'invasione dell'Afghanistan non riguardava solo la lotta contro il terrorismo, ma anche: - **Influenza geopolitica**: Gli Stati Uniti avrebbero cercato di stabilire una maggiore presenza militare e influenza in una regione strategica, vicina a Paesi come l'Iran, la Cina e la Russia. - **Risorse naturali**: L'Afghanistan ha un'importanza geopolitica anche per i suoi potenziali corridoi energetici e per le sue risorse minerarie, anche se non ha ricchezze petrolifere significative come altri Paesi del Medio Oriente. ### Critiche legittime: Al di là delle teorie del complotto, ci sono critiche legittime alla risposta degli Stati Uniti e all'espansione della guerra al terrorismo. Ad esempio: - **La guerra in Iraq**: Mentre l'invasione dell'Afghanistan fu largamente supportata, l'invasione dell'Iraq nel 2003 fu molto più controversa. Molti analisti ritengono che l'amministrazione Bush abbia sfruttato la paura generata dall'11 settembre per giustificare un attacco all'Iraq, anche se non c'erano prove concrete di un collegamento tra il regime di Saddam Hussein e al-Qaida. - **Durata della guerra**: La guerra in Afghanistan si è trasformata in un conflitto di lunga durata, che molti vedono come fallimentare, con risultati incerti nonostante il grande impegno militare ed economico. ### Conclusione: Sebbene sia possibile che alcune figure politiche o militari abbiano sfruttato l'attacco dell'11 settembre per portare avanti agende geopolitiche preesistenti, i fatti storici mostrano che l'invasione dell'Afghanistan fu una reazione diretta agli attacchi e alla minaccia di al-Qaida. Le decisioni successive, in particolare l'espansione della "guerra al terrorismo", sono state oggetto di forti critiche e controversie, ma non ci sono prove concrete che l'11 settembre sia stato pianificato o lasciato accadere per giustificare un'invasione. La **caduta delle Torri Gemelle** l'11 settembre 2001 è stata causata principalmente dai **danni strutturali provocati dall'impatto degli aerei e dal conseguente incendio**, secondo le indagini ufficiali. Le teorie che ipotizzano l'uso di esplosivi sono state ampiamente investigate ma smentite dalle analisi tecniche e dalle prove disponibili. ### Versione ufficiale: 1. **Impatto degli aerei**: Gli aerei di linea colpirono le Torri Gemelle a una velocità molto elevata, causando danni immediati e significativi alle colonne portanti esterne e interne degli edifici. Questi danni strutturali compromettevano già parte della stabilità delle torri. 2. **Incendi**: L'impatto degli aerei ha causato l'esplosione del carburante contenuto nei serbatoi, innescando vasti incendi. Il calore generato dagli incendi all'interno degli edifici raggiunse temperature estremamente elevate (fino a 1000°C o più), che indebolirono ulteriormente l'acciaio delle strutture portanti. 3. **Cedimento strutturale**: L'acciaio non deve necessariamente fondere per perdere la sua capacità portante; a temperature elevate, l'acciaio diventa più malleabile e perde resistenza. Questo, unito al danno meccanico già causato dall'impatto degli aerei, ha portato al cedimento progressivo delle strutture superiori, che sono collassate sui piani inferiori in una sorta di effetto domino. Questo spiega il "crollo verticale" delle torri. ### Investigazioni tecniche: 1. **Rapporto del NIST**: Il **National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)** ha condotto un'indagine approfondita sulla caduta delle torri. Secondo il rapporto del NIST, **non ci sono prove** che suggeriscano l'uso di esplosivi o ordigni nei crolli delle torri. I crolli sono stati attribuiti esclusivamente ai danni strutturali causati dagli impatti e agli incendi successivi. 2. **Simulazioni e analisi**: Gli ingegneri hanno simulato il comportamento degli edifici durante l'attacco e hanno concluso che l'indebolimento delle strutture portanti a causa del calore è stato sufficiente a spiegare il collasso. Il crollo avvenne in maniera progressiva e non con le caratteristiche di una demolizione controllata, come l'uso di esplosivi. ### Teorie del complotto: Nonostante le spiegazioni tecniche ufficiali, alcune persone sostengono che il crollo sia stato causato da esplosivi piazzati all'interno delle torri. Queste teorie si basano su: - **Testimonianze di esplosioni**: Alcune persone hanno riportato di aver sentito rumori di esplosioni prima o durante i crolli. Tuttavia, gli esperti hanno spiegato che questi rumori possono essere attribuiti a numerosi fattori, come i cedimenti strutturali e le esplosioni secondarie dovute al cedimento di infrastrutture interne (ad esempio, serbatoi di gas o trasformatori elettrici). - **Crollo simmetrico**: Alcuni teorici sostengono che il crollo delle torri sia stato troppo "ordinato" per essere casuale. Tuttavia, il collasso verticale è stato spiegato come il risultato del cedimento simultaneo di più colonne portanti indebolite dal calore. - **Teoria del crollo controllato**: Alcuni sostengono che le torri siano cadute con la rapidità e la precisione di una demolizione controllata. Tuttavia, studi dettagliati del NIST e altre organizzazioni non hanno trovato alcuna prova di esplosivi o segni di una demolizione pianificata. ### Conclusione: Le indagini ufficiali e i rapporti tecnici indicano chiaramente che il crollo delle Torri Gemelle è stato causato dagli impatti degli aerei e dai successivi incendi che hanno indebolito la struttura, portando al collasso progressivo. Le teorie che ipotizzano l'uso di esplosivi sono state esaminate ma non supportate da prove concrete. L'11 settembre 2001 ha avuto un impatto profondo anche sulla musica, influenzando artisti di diversi generi e portandoli a esprimere il dolore, la rabbia, la riflessione e la speranza che l'evento ha generato. La musica ha raccontato l'episodio da diverse prospettive, esplorando sia il trauma individuale che quello collettivo, e offrendo una forma di guarigione o commemorazione per chi l'ha vissuto. ### Canzoni che hanno affrontato l'11 settembre: 1. **Bruce Springsteen – "The Rising" (2002)** Questo album è uno dei più emblematici legati all'11 settembre. La title track, "The Rising", racconta la storia di un pompiere che sale verso le Torri Gemelle e riflette sul sacrificio e la speranza. L'intero album esplora i temi della perdita e della resilienza attraverso il prisma dell'America post-11 settembre, e rappresenta una sorta di catarsi per molte persone che hanno cercato conforto nella musica. 2. **Paul McCartney – "Freedom" (2001)** Paul McCartney era a New York il giorno degli attacchi e ha scritto questa canzone in risposta, cercando di trasmettere un messaggio di forza e resistenza. "Freedom" è stata eseguita al concerto benefico **"The Concert for New York City"**, un evento organizzato per raccogliere fondi per le vittime dell'attacco e celebrare il coraggio dei soccorritori. 3. **Toby Keith – "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American)" (2002)** Questa canzone country ha rappresentato il lato più patriottico e arrabbiato della reazione americana agli attentati. Toby Keith esprime il desiderio di giustizia (o vendetta), e la canzone è diventata molto popolare tra coloro che volevano una risposta forte agli attacchi. Sebbene controversa per i suoi toni duri, ha rappresentato una parte significativa del sentimento nazionale. 4. **Alan Jackson – "Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning)" (2001)** Questa ballata country ha cercato di catturare lo shock, la confusione e il dolore collettivo che l'11 settembre ha causato. La canzone pone domande che molti si sono fatti: "Dov'eri quando il mondo si è fermato?" Il tono è riflessivo e malinconico, ed è diventata una delle canzoni più ricordate che trattano direttamente dell'evento. 5. **U2 – "Walk On" (2001)** Sebbene scritta prima dell'11 settembre, "Walk On" è diventata una sorta di inno di resilienza dopo l'attacco. U2 ha dedicato diverse performance della canzone alle vittime dell'11 settembre, e il testo, che parla di andare avanti di fronte alle avversità, è stato interpretato come un messaggio di forza per chi cercava di ricostruire la propria vita. 6. **Neil Young – "Let’s Roll" (2001)** Questa canzone è stata ispirata dagli atti eroici dei passeggeri del volo United 93, che si sono ribellati contro i dirottatori, impedendo che l'aereo colpisse un obiettivo a terra. La frase "Let's roll" era ciò che uno dei passeggeri, Todd Beamer, ha detto mentre guidava la ribellione. Neil Young ha scritto questo brano per onorare quei passeggeri coraggiosi. ### Concerti e eventi musicali commemorativi: - **The Concert for New York City (2001)** Subito dopo gli attacchi, questo grande concerto benefico si è tenuto al Madison Square Garden per raccogliere fondi a favore delle vittime e per rendere omaggio ai soccorritori. Vi hanno partecipato artisti come Paul McCartney, The Who, Mick Jagger, David Bowie e molti altri. L'evento è stato una celebrazione dell'unità e della solidarietà di fronte alla tragedia. - **America: A Tribute to Heroes (2001)** Questo telethon, trasmesso a livello nazionale, ha visto la partecipazione di artisti come Bruce Springsteen, U2, Celine Dion e molti altri. Lo scopo era quello di raccogliere fondi per le vittime e i loro familiari, e molte delle performance erano riflessive e piene di emozione, offrendo un momento di unità e commiserazione collettiva. ### Effetti sull’industria musicale: L'11 settembre ha avuto anche un impatto diretto sull'industria musicale: - **Censura e sensibilità**: Molte canzoni che potevano essere considerate inappropriate o troppo aggressive dopo l'11 settembre furono temporaneamente rimosse dalle playlist radiofoniche, come "Imagine" di John Lennon (per il suo messaggio pacifista) o "New York, New York" di Frank Sinatra, per il legame con la città colpita. - **Modifiche ai testi e alle copertine**: Alcuni artisti modificarono testi o copertine di album che potevano sembrare insensibili o inappropriate nel clima post-11 settembre. Ad esempio, i Dream Theater cambiarono la copertina del loro album "Live Scenes from New York" perché raffigurava il World Trade Center in fiamme, una coincidenza che uscì pochi giorni prima degli attacchi. ### Conclusione: La musica ha offerto un modo per elaborare il trauma dell'11 settembre, sia attraverso canzoni che commemorano i caduti, sia con inni che hanno ispirato resistenza e speranza. Artisti di ogni genere hanno interpretato l'evento in modi diversi, riflettendo la complessità delle emozioni che ha suscitato, dall'angoscia e la perdita alla forza e la solidarietà. Sì, le **Dixie Chicks** (oggi conosciute come **The Chicks**) hanno avuto notevoli problemi, ma non per aver trattato direttamente il tema dell'11 settembre. I problemi che hanno affrontato sono legati alle loro critiche alla guerra in Iraq e alla presidenza di **George W. Bush**, che erano strettamente connesse al clima politico post-11 settembre. ### Contesto: Nel marzo 2003, durante un concerto a Londra, la cantante **Natalie Maines**, frontwoman delle Dixie Chicks, fece una dichiarazione che scatenò una controversia a livello nazionale negli Stati Uniti. Mentre l'invasione dell'Iraq era imminente, Maines disse al pubblico: > **"Just so you know, we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas."** Questa dichiarazione era una critica diretta al presidente **George W. Bush**, nato in Texas come Maines e il resto della band. La critica arrivava in un momento in cui il patriottismo e il sostegno alla guerra erano fortemente presenti negli Stati Uniti, specialmente nel Sud, dove le Dixie Chicks avevano una vasta base di fan nella comunità country. ### Conseguenze: 1. **Boicottaggi e censure**: Dopo il commento di Maines, molte stazioni radio, soprattutto quelle country, **boicottarono le Dixie Chicks**, rimuovendo le loro canzoni dalle playlist. In alcune parti degli Stati Uniti, i fan organizzarono pubblici **roghi dei loro album**. 2. **Perdita di supporto nel mondo country**: La comunità della musica country, che spesso riflette valori patriottici e conservatori, si rivolse contro di loro. Molti artisti e fan country criticarono duramente le Dixie Chicks per aver espresso opinioni contro la guerra e contro il presidente in un momento in cui il sostegno alla leadership nazionale era considerato importante. 3. **Minacce e ostilità**: Le Dixie Chicks ricevettero **minacce di morte** e furono soggette a intense campagne di odio. Questo dimostrò quanto fossero polarizzate le opinioni politiche negli Stati Uniti all'epoca, specialmente nell'industria della musica country. 4. **Carriera messa in pausa**: Dopo la controversia, la loro carriera negli Stati Uniti subì un grave colpo. Le vendite dei loro album calarono, e per diversi anni furono considerate una "band alienata" dall'industria country. Tuttavia, il gruppo trovò maggiore supporto nel pubblico internazionale e in generi musicali non tradizionalmente legati al country. ### La risposta delle Dixie Chicks: Le Dixie Chicks risposero alla controversia con coraggio e determinazione. Nel 2006, pubblicarono l'album **"Taking the Long Way"**, che includeva la famosa canzone **"Not Ready to Make Nice"**. Questo brano affrontava direttamente le critiche ricevute e il loro rifiuto di scusarsi per aver espresso le proprie opinioni. > **"Not Ready to Make Nice"** fu un grande successo e vinse diversi Grammy Awards, incluso quello per il **Miglior Album dell'Anno** e la **Canzone dell'Anno**. L'album rappresentava un chiaro messaggio: non erano pronte a cedere alla pressione e non si scusavano per aver esercitato la loro libertà di espressione. ### Riflessione sulla controversia: La controversia rifletteva una tensione più ampia nella società americana post-11 settembre, dove il patriottismo era visto da molti come un valore sacro e la critica alle politiche governative, specialmente riguardo alla guerra, poteva essere percepita come un tradimento. Le Dixie Chicks divennero un simbolo di questa polarizzazione e del conflitto tra libertà di espressione e patriottismo. ### Conclusione: Sebbene le Dixie Chicks non abbiano trattato direttamente l'11 settembre, la loro critica alla guerra in Iraq e a George W. Bush, strettamente connessa agli eventi post-11 settembre, portò a una delle più grandi controversie nella storia della musica country. Tuttavia, con il tempo, il gruppo è riuscito a superare le difficoltà e ha ottenuto una sorta di redenzione artistica e pubblica, guadagnando il rispetto di molti per la loro integrità e il loro coraggio nel difendere le proprie opinioni. Sì, i **Green Day** hanno trattato indirettamente i temi legati all'11 settembre e le sue conseguenze, soprattutto attraverso il loro album più famoso, **"American Idiot"** (2004). L'album non affronta direttamente gli attacchi dell'11 settembre, ma esplora il clima politico e sociale che si è sviluppato negli Stati Uniti dopo gli attentati, in particolare la guerra in Iraq, il patriottismo estremo e la manipolazione dei media. ### Contesto di "American Idiot": "American Idiot" è un concept album che segue un personaggio chiamato **Jesus of Suburbia**, che rappresenta la frustrazione e l'alienazione della generazione cresciuta nell'America post-11 settembre. L'album racconta una storia di rabbia, disillusione e ribellione contro il governo, i media e la società americana dell'epoca. ### Temi principali legati all'11 settembre e alle sue conseguenze: 1. **Critica ai media e alla manipolazione dell'informazione**: - La title track, **"American Idiot"**, critica aspramente la manipolazione dei media e il modo in cui la società americana è stata spinta verso un patriottismo cieco e un clima di paura. La canzone si scaglia contro l'idea che gli americani vengano indotti a seguire passivamente le direttive dei media e del governo, un tema strettamente legato alla narrazione post-11 settembre e alla propaganda che ha accompagnato la guerra in Iraq. > "Don't wanna be an American idiot, Don't want a nation under the new media." Qui, la band esprime il loro disgusto per l'influenza della propaganda mediatica e la crescente polarizzazione politica. 2. **Disillusione verso il governo e la guerra**: - Il brano **"Holiday"** è una feroce critica alla guerra in Iraq e alla politica estera dell'amministrazione Bush, spesso vista come una conseguenza diretta degli attacchi dell'11 settembre. La canzone denuncia l'ipocrisia e l'avidità che, secondo i Green Day, hanno guidato la decisione di invadere l'Iraq. > "This is the dawning of the rest of our lives, On holiday." Il termine "holiday" viene usato sarcasticamente per indicare una pausa dalla realtà, mentre la guerra viene condotta senza una giustificazione morale valida. 3. **Riflessioni sulla paura e l'ansia della generazione post-11 settembre**: - **"Boulevard of Broken Dreams"** esplora temi più personali di alienazione e solitudine, ma riflette anche l'ansia e la disillusione che molti americani, specialmente giovani, hanno provato nell'era post-11 settembre. Il senso di isolamento e la perdita di speranza di Jesus of Suburbia rappresentano simbolicamente il malessere di una generazione confusa e incerta sul futuro. > "I walk a lonely road, The only one that I have ever known." 4. **Rabbia verso l'apatia sociale**: - In **"Wake Me Up When September Ends"**, molti hanno visto una connessione simbolica con gli attacchi dell'11 settembre. Sebbene la canzone sia stata scritta dal frontman **Billie Joe Armstrong** come una riflessione personale sulla morte di suo padre, è diventata una sorta di inno per chiunque cercasse di elaborare il dolore e il trauma degli eventi del 2001. L'uso di "September" nel titolo ha portato molti a collegare il brano agli eventi dell'11 settembre e al desiderio di superare quel periodo buio. > "Here comes the rain again, Falling from the stars, Drenched in my pain again, Becoming who we are." La canzone evoca sentimenti di perdita e desiderio di guarigione, temi che risuonano con l'atmosfera post-attentati. ### Impatto di "American Idiot": "American Idiot" è stato un successo enorme e ha avuto un impatto culturale significativo. L'album ha dato voce a una generazione di giovani disillusi dalla politica americana e dalla guerra, riflettendo il malcontento diffuso verso l'amministrazione Bush e il modo in cui il paese aveva reagito agli eventi dell'11 settembre. Il successo dell'album ha portato anche alla produzione di un musical omonimo, che ha continuato a esplorare questi temi. ### Conclusione: I Green Day non hanno trattato direttamente gli attacchi dell'11 settembre, ma il loro album "American Idiot" è una risposta critica alle conseguenze politiche e sociali di quell'evento, in particolare la guerra in Iraq, la manipolazione dei media e la disillusione dei giovani. L'album è stato un potente veicolo di protesta contro il clima politico dell'epoca e ha dato voce alla frustrazione di molti americani.

MYTH The British helped the Jews displace the native Arab population of Palestine. FACT Herbert Samuel, a British Jew who served as the first High Commissioner of Palestine, placed restrictions on Jewish immigration “in the ‘interests of the present population’ and the ‘absorptive capacity’ of the country.”1 The influx of Jewish settlers was said to force the Arab fellahin (native peasants) from their land. This was when less than a million people lived in an area that now supports more than nine million. The British limited the absorptive capacity of Palestine when, in 1921, Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill severed nearly four-fifths of Palestine—some thirty-five thousand square miles—to create a new Arab entity, Transjordan. As a consolation prize for the Hejaz and Arabia (which are both now Saudi Arabia) going to the Saud family, Churchill rewarded Sharif Hussein’s son Abdullah for his contribution to the war against Turkey by installing him as Transjordan’s emir. The British went further and placed restrictions on Jewish land purchases in what remained of Palestine. By 1949, the British had allotted 87,500 acres of the 187,500 acres of cultivable land to Arabs and only 4,250 acres to Jews. This contradicted Article 6 of the Mandate which stated that “the Administration of Palestine…shall encourage, in cooperation with the Jewish Agency…close settlement by Jews on the land, including State lands and waste lands not acquired for public purposes.”2 Ultimately, the British admitted that the argument about the country’s absorptive capacity was specious. The Peel Commission said, “The heavy immigration in the years 1933–36 would seem to show that the Jews have been able to enlarge the absorptive capacity of the country for Jews.”3 MYTH The British allowed Jews to flood Palestine while Arab immigration was tightly controlled. FACT The British response to Jewish immigration set a precedent of appeasing the Arabs, which was followed for the duration of the Mandate. The British restricted Jewish immigration while allowing Arabs to enter the country freely. Apparently, London did not feel that a flood of Arab immigrants would affect the country’s “absorptive capacity.” During World War I, the Jewish population in Palestine declined because of the war, famine, disease, and expulsion by the Turks. In 1915, approximately 83,000 Jews lived in Palestine among 590,000 Muslim and Christian Arabs. According to the 1922 census, the Jewish population was 83,000, while the Arabs numbered 643,000.4 Thus, the Arab population grew exponentially while that of the Jews stagnated. In the mid-1920s, Jewish immigration to Palestine increased primarily because of anti-Jewish economic legislation in Poland and Washington’s imposition of restrictive quotas.5 The record number of immigrants in 1935 (see table) was a response to the growing persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany. The British administration considered this number too large, however, so the Jewish Agency was informed that less than one-third of the quota it asked for would be approved in 1936.6 The British gave in further to Arab demands by announcing in the 1939 White Paper that an independent Arab state would be created within ten years and that Jewish immigration was to be limited to 75,000 for the next five years, after which it was to cease altogether. It also forbade land sales to Jews in 95% of the territory of Palestine. The Arabs, nevertheless, rejected the proposal. Jewish Immigration to Palestine7 1919 1,806 1931 4,075 1920 8,223 1932 12,533 1921 8,294 1933 37,337 1922 8,685 1934 45,267 1923 8,175 1935 66,472 1924 13,892 1936 29,595 1925 34,386 1937 10,629 1926 13,855 1938 14,675 1927 3,034 1939 31,195 1928 2,178 1940 10,643 1929 5,249 1941 4,592 1930 4,944 By contrast, throughout the Mandatory period, Arab immigration was unrestricted. In 1930, the Hope Simpson Commission, sent from London to investigate the 1929 Arab riots, said the British practice of ignoring the uncontrolled illegal Arab immigration from Egypt, Transjordan, and Syria had the effect of displacing the prospective Jewish immigrants.8 The British governor of the Sinai from 1922 to 1936 observed, “This illegal immigration was not only going on from the Sinai, but also from Transjordan and Syria, and it is very difficult to make a case out for the misery of the Arabs if at the same time their compatriots from adjoining states could not be kept from going in to share that misery.”9 The Peel Commission reported in 1937 that the “shortfall of land is…due less to the amount of land acquired by Jews than to the increase in the Arab population.”10 MYTH The British changed their policy to allow Holocaust survivors to settle in Palestine. FACT The gates of Palestine remained closed for the duration of the war, stranding hundreds of thousands of Jews in Europe, many of whom became victims of Hitler’s “Final Solution.” After the war, the British refused to allow the survivors of the Nazi nightmare to find sanctuary in Palestine. On June 6, 1946, President Truman urged the British government to relieve the suffering of the Jews confined to displaced persons camps in Europe by immediately accepting 100,000 Jewish immigrants. Britain’s foreign minister Ernest Bevin replied sarcastically that the United States wanted displaced Jews to immigrate to Palestine “because they did not want too many of them in New York.”11 Some Jews reached Palestine, many smuggled in on dilapidated ships organized by the Haganah. Between August 1945 and the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948, sixty-five “illegal” immigrant ships, carrying 69,878 people, arrived from European shores. In August 1946, however, the British began to intern those they caught in camps on Cyprus. Approximately 50,000 people were detained in the camps, and 28,000 remained imprisoned when Israel declared independence.12 MYTH As the Jewish population grew, the plight of the Palestinian Arabs worsened. FACT In July 1921, Hasan Shukri, the mayor of Haifa and president of the Muslim National Associations, sent a telegram to the British government in reaction to a delegation of Palestinians that went to London to try to stop the implementation of the Balfour Declaration. Shukri wrote: We are certain that without Jewish immigration and financial assistance there will be no future development of our country as may be judged from the fact that the towns inhabited in part by Jews such as Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa, and Tiberias are making steady progress while Nablus, Acre, and Nazareth where no Jews reside are steadily declining.13 The Jewish population increased by 470,000 between World War I and World War II, while the non-Jewish population rose by 588,000.14 The permanent Arab population increased by 120% between 1922 and 1947.15 This rapid growth of the Arab population was a result of several factors. One was immigration from neighboring states—constituting 37% of the total immigration to pre-state Israel—by Arabs who wanted to take advantage of the higher standard of living the Jews had made possible.16 The Arab population also grew because of the improved living conditions created by the Jews as they drained malarial swamps and brought improved sanitation and health care to the region. Thus, for example, the Muslim infant mortality rate fell from 201 per thousand in 1925 to 94 per thousand in 1945, and life expectancy rose from 37 years in 1926 to 49 in 1943.17 The Arab population increased the most in cities where large Jewish populations had created new economic opportunities. From 1922–1947, the non-Jewish population increased by 290% in Haifa, 131% in Jerusalem, and 158% in Jaffa. The growth in Arab towns was more modest: 42% in Nablus, 78% in Jenin, and 37% in Bethlehem.18 MYTH Jews stole Arab land. FACT Despite the growth in their population, the Arabs continued to assert they were being displaced. From the beginning of World War I, however, part of Palestine’s land was owned by absentee landlords who lived in Cairo, Damascus, and Beirut. About 80% of the Palestinian Arabs were debt-ridden peasants, semi-nomads, and Bedouins.19 Jews went out of their way to avoid purchasing land in areas where Arabs might be displaced. They sought land that was largely uncultivated, swampy, cheap, and—most important—without tenants. In 1920, Labor Zionist leader David Ben-Gurion expressed his concern about the Arab fellahin, whom he viewed as “the most important asset of the native population.” He insisted that “under no circumstances must we touch land belonging to fellahs or worked by them.” Instead, he advocated helping liberate them from their oppressors. “Only if a fellah leaves his place of settlement,” Ben-Gurion added, “should we offer to buy his land, at an appropriate price.”20 Jews only began to purchase cultivated land after buying all the uncultivated territory. Many Arabs were willing to sell because of the migration to coastal towns and because they needed money to invest in the citrus industry.21 When John Hope Simpson arrived in Palestine in May 1930, he observed, “They [the Jews] paid high prices for the land and, in addition, they paid to certain of the occupants of those lands a considerable amount of money which they were not legally bound to pay.”22 In 1931, Lewis French conducted a survey of landlessness for the British government and offered new plots to any Arabs who had been “dispossessed.” British officials received more than 3,000 applications, of which 80% were ruled invalid by the government’s legal adviser because the applicants were not landless Arabs. This left only about 600 landless Arabs, 100 of whom accepted the government land offer.23 In April 1936, a new outbreak of Arab attacks on Jews was instigated by local Palestinian leaders who were later joined by Arab volunteers led by a Syrian guerrilla named Fawzi al-Qawuqji, the commander of the Arab Liberation Army. By November, when the British finally sent a new commission headed by Lord Peel to investigate, 89 Jews had been killed and more than 300 wounded.24 The Peel Commission’s report found that Arab complaints about Jewish land acquisition were baseless. It pointed out that “much of the land now carrying orange groves was sand dunes or swamp and uncultivated when it was purchased…There was at the time of the earlier sales little evidence that the owners possessed either the resources or training needed to develop the land.”25 Moreover, the Commission found the shortage was “due less to the amount of land acquired by Jews than to the increase in the Arab population.” The report concluded that the presence of Jews in Palestine, along with the work of the British administration, had resulted in higher wages, an improved standard of living, and ample employment opportunities.26 It is made quite clear to all, both by the map drawn up by the Simpson Commission and by another compiled by the Peel Commission, that the Arabs are as prodigal in selling their land as they are in useless wailing and weeping (emphasis in the original). —Transjordan’s king Abdullah27 Even at the height of the Arab revolt in 1938 (which began in April 1936 with the murder of two Jews by Arabs and the subsequent murder of two Arab workers by members of the Jewish underground28), the British high commissioner to Palestine believed the Arab landowners were complaining about sales to Jews to drive up prices for lands they wished to sell. Many Arab landowners had been so terrorized by Arab rebels they decided to leave Palestine and sell their property to the Jews.29 The Jews paid exorbitant prices to wealthy landowners for small tracts of arid land. “In 1944, Jews paid between $1,000 and $1,100 per acre in Palestine, mostly for arid or semiarid land; in the same year, rich black soil in Iowa was selling for about $110 per acre.”30 By 1947, Jewish holdings in Palestine amounted to about 463,000 acres. Approximately 45,000 were acquired from the mandatory government, 30,000 were bought from various churches, and 387,500 were purchased from Arabs. Analyses of land purchases from 1880 to 1948 show that 73% of Jewish plots were purchased from large landowners, not poor fellahin.31 Many leaders of the Arab nationalist movement, including members of the Muslim Supreme Council, and the mayors of Gaza, Jerusalem, and s sold land to the Jews. As’ad el-Shuqeiri, a Muslim religious scholar and father of Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Ahmed Shuqeiri, took Jewish money for his land. Even King Abdullah leased land to the Jews.32 MYTH The British helped the Palestinians to live peacefully with the Jews. FACT In 1921, Haj Amin el-Husseini first began to organize fedayeen (“one who sacrifices himself”) to terrorize Jews. El-Husseini hoped to duplicate the success of Kemal Atatürk in Turkey by driving the Jews out of Palestine just as Kemal had driven the invading Greeks from his country.33 Arab radicals gained influence because the British administration was unwilling to take effective action against them until they began a revolt against British rule. Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, former head of British military intelligence in Cairo, and later chief political officer for Palestine and Syria, wrote in his diary that British officials “incline towards the exclusion of Zionism in Palestine.” The British encouraged the Palestinians to attack the Jews. According to Meinertzhagen, Col. Bertie Harry Waters-Taylor (financial adviser to the military administration in Palestine 1919–23) met with el-Husseini in 1920, a few days before Easter, and told him that “he had a great opportunity at Easter to show the world…that Zionism was unpopular not only with the Palestine administration but in Whitehall.” He added that “if disturbances of sufficient violence occurred in Jerusalem at Easter, both General [Louis] Bols [chief administrator in Palestine, 1919–20] and General [Edmund] Allenby [commander of the Egyptian force, 1917–19, then high commissioner of Egypt] would advocate the abandonment of the Jewish Home. Waters-Taylor explained that freedom could only be attained through violence.”34 El-Husseini took the colonel’s advice and instigated a riot. The British withdrew their troops and the Jewish police from Jerusalem, allowing the Arab mob to attack Jews and loot their shops. Because of el-Husseini’s overt role in instigating the pogrom, the British decided to arrest him. He escaped, however, and was sentenced to ten years in absentia. A year later, some British Arabists convinced High Commissioner Herbert Samuel to pardon el-Husseini and to appoint him Mufti (a cleric in charge of Jerusalem’s Islamic holy places). By contrast, Vladimir Jabotinsky and several followers, who had formed a Jewish defense organization during the unrest, were sentenced to 15 years. They were released a few months later.35 Samuel met with el-Husseini on April 11, 1921, and was assured “that the influences of his family and himself would be devoted to tranquility.” Three weeks later, riots in Jaffa and elsewhere left forty-three Jews dead.36 El-Husseini consolidated his power and took control of all Muslim religious funds in Palestine. He used his authority to gain control over the mosques, the schools, and the courts. No Arab could reach an influential position without being loyal to the Mufti. His power was so absolute that “no Muslim in Palestine could be born or die without being beholden to Haj Amin.”37 The Mufti’s henchmen also ensured he would have no opposition by systematically killing Palestinians who discussed cooperation with the Jews from rival clans. As the spokesman for Palestinian Arabs, el-Husseini did not ask that Britain grant them independence. On the contrary, in a letter to Churchill in 1921, he demanded that Palestine be reunited with Syria and Transjordan.38 The Arabs found rioting an effective political tool because of the lax British response toward violence against Jews. In handling each riot, the British prevented Jews from protecting themselves but made little effort to prevent the Arabs from attacking them. After each outbreak, a British commission of inquiry would try to establish the cause of the violence. The conclusion was always the same: The Arabs feared being displaced by the Jews. To stop the rioting, the commissions would recommend that restrictions be placed on Jewish immigration. Thus, the Arabs learned they could always stop the influx of Jews by staging riots. This cycle began after a series of riots in May 1921. After failing to protect the Jewish community from Arab mobs, the British appointed the Haycraft Commission to investigate the cause of the violence. Although the panel concluded the Arabs had been the aggressors, it rationalized the cause of the attack: “The fundamental cause of the riots was a feeling among the Arabs of discontent with, and hostility to, the Jews, due to political and economic causes, and connected with Jewish immigration, and with their conception of Zionist policy.”39 One consequence of the violence was the institution of a temporary ban on Jewish immigration. The Arab fear of being “displaced” or “dominated” was an excuse for their attacks on Jewish settlers. Note, too, that these riots were not inspired by nationalistic fervor—nationalists would have rebelled against their British overlords—they were motivated by economics, the radical Islamic views of the Mufti, and misunderstanding. In 1929, Arab provocateurs convinced the masses that the Jews had designs on the Temple Mount (a tactic still used today to incite violence). A Jewish religious observance at the Western Wall, which forms a part of the Temple Mount, served as a pretext for rioting by Arabs against Jews, which spilled out of Jerusalem into other villages and towns, including Safed and Hebron. Again, the British administration made no effort to prevent the violence, and, after it began, the British did nothing to protect the Jewish population. After six days of mayhem, the British finally brought troops in to quell the disturbance. By this time, most of Hebron’s Jews had fled or been killed. In all, 133 Jews were killed and 399 wounded in the pogroms.40 After the riots, the British ordered an investigation, resulting in the Passfield White Paper. It said the “immigration, land purchase and settlement policies of the Zionist Organization were already or were likely to become, prejudicial to Arab interests. It understood the mandatory government’s obligation to the non-Jewish community to mean that Palestine’s resources must be primarily reserved for the growing Arab economy.”41 This meant it was necessary to restrict Jewish immigration and land purchases. MYTH The Mufti was not a Nazi collaborator. FACT In 1941, Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem, fled to Germany and met with Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, Joachim Von Ribbentrop, and other Nazi leaders. He wanted to persuade them to extend the Nazis’ anti-Jewish program to the Arab world. The Mufti sent Hitler fifteen drafts of declarations he wanted Germany and Italy to make concerning the Middle East. One called on the two countries to declare the illegality of the Jewish home in Palestine. He also asked the Axis powers to “accord to Palestine and to other Arab countries the right to solve the problem of the Jewish elements in Palestine and other Arab countries in accordance with the interest of the Arabs, and by the same method that the question is now being settled in the Axis countries.”42 In November 1941, the Mufti met with Hitler, who told him the Jews were his foremost enemy. The Nazi dictator rebuffed the Mufti’s requests for a declaration in support of the Arabs, however, telling him the time was not right. The Mufti offered Hitler his “thanks for the sympathy which he had always shown for the Arab and especially Palestinian cause, and to which he had given clear expression in his public speeches.” He added, “The Arabs were Germany’s natural friends because they had the same enemies as had Germany, namely…the Jews.” Hitler told the Mufti he opposed the creation of a Jewish state and that Germany’s objective was destroying the Jewish element in the Arab sphere.43 In 1945, Yugoslavia sought to indict the Mufti as a war criminal for his role in recruiting twenty thousand Muslim volunteers for the SS, who participated in the killing of Jews in Croatia and Hungary. He escaped French detention in 1946, however, and continued his fight against the Jews from Cairo and later Beirut where he died in 1974. MYTH The bombing of the King David Hotel was part of a deliberate terror campaign against civilians. FACT British troops seized the Jewish Agency compound on June 29, 1946, and confiscated large quantities of documents. At about the same time, more than 2,500 Jews from all over Palestine were arrested. A week later, news of a massacre of 40 Jews in a pogrom in Poland reminded the Jews of Palestine how Britain’s restrictive immigration policy had condemned thousands to death. In response to the British provocations, and a desire to demonstrate that the Jews’ spirit could not be broken, the United Resistance Movement planned to bomb the King David Hotel, which housed the British military command and the Criminal Investigation Division in addition to hotel guests. The Haganah pulled out of the plot and left it up to the Irgun. Irgun leader Menachem Begin stressed his desire to avoid civilian casualties and the plan was to warn the British so they would evacuate the building before it was blown up. Three telephone calls were placed on July 22, 1946, one to the hotel, another to the French Consulate, and a third to the Palestine Post warning that explosives in the King David Hotel would soon be detonated. The call to the hotel was received and ignored. Begin quotes one British official who supposedly refused to evacuate the building, saying, “We don’t take orders from the Jews.”44 As a result, when the bombs exploded, the casualty toll was high: 91 killed and 45 injured. Among the casualties were 15 Jews. Few people in the main part of the hotel were injured.45 For decades, the British denied they had been warned. In 1979, however, a member of the British Parliament provided the testimony of a British officer who heard other officers in the King David Hotel bar joking about a Zionist threat to the headquarters. The officer who overheard the conversation immediately left the hotel and survived.46 In contrast to Arab attacks against Jews, which Arab leaders hailed as heroic actions, the Jewish National Council denounced the bombing of the King David.47 1 Aharon Cohen, Israel and the Arab World, (NY: Funk and Wagnalls, 1970), p. 172

Chapter 7 - Review Data and Decision Making *Glow bus due at midnight, name and student number: answer questions using content in class People have created wonderful things for centuries, and management Management can be traced as far back as 500 bc when the ancient Sumerians used written records to improve government and business activities Why is it important to lean from the past Not to repeat our mistakes Classical management approaches Scientific management Administrative Principles Bureaucratic organisation Behavioural Management Approaches Follett’s Organizations as communities The Hawthorne studies Maslow’s theory of human needs Mcgregor’s Theory x and Theory Y Argyris Personality and organisation Modern Management foundations Organises as systems Contingency thinking Quality management Quantitative and analysis and tools Evidence-based management Contributions Frederick Taylor - Father of Scientific management He noticed that workers often did their jobs with wasted motions and without a constant approach. His resulted in inefficiency and low performance He believed the problem could be fixed if workers were taught to do their jobs in the best ways and ten were helped and guided by supervisors Four guiding principles of scientific management Rules of motion, standardized work and proper working conditions Select workers with the right abilities Train workers and give them incentives Support workers by planning and smoothing the way as they do their work Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Pioneered use of motitono studies as a management tool In one famous case, the gilbreaths cut down the number of motions used by bricklayers adn tripled their productivity Contributions from scientific management Make results-based compensation a performance incentive Carefully design jobs with efficient work methods Carefully select workers with the ability to perform the job Trian workers to execute activities to the best of their abilities Train supervisors to support workers so they can perform jobs to the best of their abilities Classical Management Adiminstative principle (Henro Fayol) 1919, after a career in French industry, Henri F published “adminisration Industrielle et Generale” (General and industrial management) in which we out like his views on the management of organiztion and workers Rules and duties in management Foresight - to complete a plan of action for the future Organization - To provide and mobilize resources to implement the plan Common- to lead, select and evaluate workers to get the best work toward the plan Coordination- to fit diverse efforts together and ensure information is shared and problems solved Control- to make sure things happen according to plan and to take necessary corrective action Classical management Bureacratic organiztion (Max Weber) Max weber (Bureaucrativ organization) - late 19th century German political economist who had a major impact in the fields of management and sociology Bureaucratic Organization An ideal, intentionally rational adn very efficient form of organization Based on the principles of logic, order and legitimate authority Characteristics of BO Clear division of labour Clear hierarchy of authority Formal rules and procedure Impersonality Careers based on merit What are some disadvantages of bureaucracy Takes a long time for problems to become solved bec there are procedures and there is a chain of people in command Having the power Rules have to follow Excessive paperwork or “red tape” Slowness in handling problems Rigidity in the face of shifting needs Resistance to change Employee apathy Behavioural Management Approaches (focus on understanding the elements that affect human behaviour in organisations) Follett’s Organizations as communites Mary park follett contributed to the transition from classical thinking inot behavioural management Groups and human cooperation Groups allow individuales too combine their talents for a greater good Organizations are cooperating “communites” of managers adn workers Managers job is to help people copperate and achive an integration of goals and intrests Forward-looking managment insight: Making every emploee an owner creates a sense of collective responsibility Prescursor of employrr ownership, profit sharing and gain sharing Buniess problems invovle a varity of inter realted factors Prescursor of systems thinking Private profits realtive to public good Precursor of managerial ethics and social respinsibility Hawthorne studies Took place at western electric chicago plan, a tran led by Harvards Elton Mayo set out to learn how econmic incentives and workplace conditions affected workers output Maing objective Intial study examined how ecomoin incentives adn physical conditions affected worker output (productivity) No consistent relationship found During experientmetn they had 2 groups The expertiant groups (impoved wokring ocnditions ) The control group ( no changes to original working conidtions) No consitant relationship found, perfomance in both groups increased even after removing incentives Social setting and human relations Concluded New “social setting” led workers to do good job Good “Human relations” = higher productivity The contect - The Great Depression (1929-1940) Employee attitudes and groups processes Osme thinsf satisifed some workers but not others People resticited output to adhere to groups norms (Avoid layoffs) Lessons from he hawthrone stufirs Social and human concerns are keys to prductivity Hawthrone effect - People who are singled out for special attention perform as expected Maslow’s Theory of human needs Human needs The work of psychologist Abraham Maslow in the area if human “needs,” also has had a major impact in the behavioual apporach to management Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs Self actualization needs Higherst level: need foe self fulfillment to grow and use abilites to fullest and most creative extent Esteem needs Needs fro esteem in eyes of others need for respect, prestige, recognition; need for self esteem, personal sense of competence, mastery Social needs Need for love, affection, sense of belongingness in ones relationship either other people Safett needs Need for security, protection and stability in teh events of day to day life Physiological needs Most basic of all human needs: need for biological maintence; food, water and phydical well being Principles Defict principle: A satidifed need is not a motivator of behaviour Progress principles: A need becomes a motivator once the preceding lower-level need is satisfied Both principles cease to operate at self actulilzation level McGregor’s Theories Thepry x assumes that workers; Dislike work Lack ambition Are irresponsible Resist change Prefer to be led Theoyry y assumes that workers are Willing to work Willing to accept responsibility Capable of self control Capable of self direction Imaginative and creative According to McGregor, Managers create: Self fulfilling prophecies Implications of Theory x and y Theory x managers: Create situations where workers become dependent, passive and reluctant Theory y managers create situations where workers respond with initiative and high performance Central to notions of empowerment and self management Argyris’s theory of adult personality Classical management principles and practices inhibit worker maturation and are inconsistent with the mature adult personality Management practices should accommodate the mature personality: Increasing task responsibility Increasing task variety Using participative decision making Modern Management Foundation Quantitative analysis and Tools Analytics: the use of large data bases and mathematics to solve problems and make informed decision using systematic analysis Organization as systems System Collection of interrelated parts that function together to achieve a common purpose Subsystem A smaller component of a larger system Open systems Organisations that interact with their environment Contingency thinking Tires to maths managerial responses with problem (situation) No “one best way” to manage The “appropriate way to to manage depends on the situations Quality management Qality anc competitive advantafe are linked Total quality managment (TQM) Comprehensive approach to contiou impovment on teh entire organization ISO certification Gloval quality management standards Refine and upgrade quality to meet ISO requirments Evidednce Based Managment Making management decision on “hard facts” about what really works

In this video we take a look at the 0:02 fetch to code 0:03 execute cycle including its effect on 0:06 the various registers we've previously 0:12 [Music] 0:14 discussed a computer is defined Definition 0:17 as an electronic device that takes an 0:20 input 0:22 processes data 0:25 and delivers output 0:29 in this simple example you can see we're 0:31 taking the input 5 0:35 we're multiplying it by 2 that's our 0:37 process 0:39 and we're outputting 10. 0:44 but this could be way more complex for 0:46 example of a game console 0:48 the input could be the buttons you press 0:50 on a controller 0:53 the processes would then be carried out 0:55 by the console itself 0:59 and the output would be some form of 1:01 update to a monitor 1:02 and sound out for a speaker possibly 1:04 vibration feedback through the 1:06 controller 1:10 to process data a computer follows a set 1:13 of instructions 1:14 known as a computer program 1:18 if we take the lid off a typical desktop 1:20 computer we can identify 1:22 two critical components the memory 1:26 that stores the program and the central 1:29 processing unit or processor 1:31 which is under this large fan and 1:33 carries out the instructions 1:37 a computer carries out its function by 1:40 fetching 1:41 instructions decoding them and then 1:43 executing them 1:44 in a continuous repetitive cycle 1:46 billions of times a second 1:48 let's look at each of these stages in a 1:50 little more detail Fetch 1:53 so let's start with the fetch stage the 1:55 very first thing that happens 1:57 is the program counter is checked as it 2:00 holds the address 2:01 of the next instruction to be executed 2:07 the address stored is then copied into 2:09 the memory address register 2:14 the address is then sent along the 2:16 address bus to main memory 2:18 where it waits to receive a signal from 2:21 the control 2:22 bus so it knows what to do 2:27 as we want to read the data that's 2:29 stored in memory address 2:30 0 0 0 0 the control unit sends 2:34 a read signal along the control bus to 2:36 main memory 2:41 now main memory knows the data needs to 2:44 be read 2:45 the content stored in memory address 000 2:49 can be sent along the data bus to the 2:51 memory data register 2:56 now as we're currently in the process of 2:58 fetching an instruction 3:00 the data received by the memory data 3:03 register gets copied 3:04 into the current instruction register 3:11 the instruction effectively has now been 3:14 fetched from memory 3:16 just before we proceed to the decode 3:18 phase we now 3:19 increment the program counter so that 3:22 the address it contains 3:24 points to the address of the next 3:26 instruction which will need to be 3:30 executed 3:32 the instruction now being held in the 3:33 current instruction register 3:35 is ready to be decoded 3:39 now as we mentioned in the previous 3:41 video the instruction is made up of two 3:43 parts 3:44 we have the op code that's what it is we 3:47 need to do 3:50 and we have the operand what are we 3:53 going to do it to 3:55 now the operand could contain the actual 3:57 data 3:58 or indeed it could contain an address of 4:01 where the data is to be found 4:06 by decoding this instruction we can see 4:08 the operation we need 4:10 is a load operation so we need to load 4:14 the contents of memory location0101 4:18 into the cpus accumulator 4:25 in the exam a simple model will be used 4:27 to describe the 4:29 structure of any given instruction 4:32 you're not going to be expected to 4:34 define how an opcode is made up 4:36 but simply to interpret opcodes in the 4:39 given context of an exam 4:40 question in the example here 4:44 you can see there's a total of 16 4:46 different opcodes available 4:48 and this is because we're using four 4:50 bits for our representation 4:56 so now we've fetched the instruction and 4:59 we've decoded it so we know what we need 5:00 to do 5:01 we're finally ready to execute it 5:05 so we now send address 0101 5:08 to the memory dress register 5:13 now we're in the memory address register 5:15 we can finally send the address 5:18 down the address bus to main memory 5:24 this time we want to read the data 5:26 that's stored in memory 5:28 and so the control unit again sends a 5:30 read signal along the control bus 5:36 so main memories now receive an address 5:38 and a read signal 5:40 so the content stored at memory location 5:43 0101 5:44 can now be sent along the data bus back 5:46 to the cpu 5:47 and into the memory data register 5:54 finally the contents of the memory data 5:56 register are copied to the accumulator 5:59 and this is one of a number of general 6:00 purpose registers found in the cpu 6:04 this first instruction is now complete Branching 6:11 so what does this program actually do 6:14 you should be able to work it through 6:16 carefully and figure it out 6:19 we're now pointing instructions zero 6:21 zero zero one in the program counter 6:23 and we're ready to fetch the second 6:25 instruction 6:27 at the end of this video we're gonna 6:29 provide you with the answer 6:34 so let's talk a second about programs 6:37 that branch 6:40 on the left here we have a very simple 6:42 piece of pseudo code 6:44 line zero says first execute this line 6:46 of code 6:47 line 1 now execute this line and then 6:50 line 2 says 6:52 if the age is greater than 18 then 6:56 we're going to execute lines 3 and 4 6:58 otherwise 6:59 we're going to execute lines six and 7:02 seven 7:03 so this program doesn't necessarily 7:05 follow strictly in sequence from line 7:07 zero through to seven there's a chance 7:10 here the program may branch and jump 7:14 around 7:16 so we're going to pretend that this 7:17 program has been loaded into memory 7:20 each line of code on the left here has 7:23 ended up 7:24 as a location in memory now this is not 7:27 strictly how this would happen in this 7:28 one-to-one way 7:29 but for the purpose of example it's 7:31 absolutely fine 7:35 so the program counter starts by 7:37 pointing to memory address zero 7:39 and we fetch the first instruction 7:41 decode it and execute it 7:44 it then updates and tells us the next 7:47 instruction 7:48 is zero zero zero one because remember 7:50 the program counter is being incremented 7:52 so we fetch it decode it and we execute 7:55 line one of our program 7:59 we then fetch line two which in binary 8:01 is one 8:02 zero 8:06 now at this point depending on what 8:10 happens during the execution 8:11 of line two the program may be required 8:15 to fetch line three from memory or 8:18 line five from memory 8:25 so let's look at how this actually works 8:27 because we've said the program counter 8:28 simply gets incremented 8:31 well in the current instruction register 8:33 we have an instruction with the op code 8:36 0 1 1 0. 8:41 now when we look this up in the decode 8:43 unit we discover that this 8:45 code means branch always 8:51 this replaces the value held in the 8:54 program counter 8:56 with the contents of the operand that's 8:58 the second part of the instruction 9:01 from the current instruction register so 9:03 this case 9:04 one zero zero one 9:09 now when the next fetch cycle begins the 9:12 program counter is obviously checked 9:14 and as its contents have been previously 9:16 updated to a new memory location 9:19 and not simply incremented the program 9:22 effectively is able to jump 9:24 around memory 9:28 so having watched this video you should 9:30 be able to answer the following key 9:32 question 9:33 how does a cpu work 9:39 okay so let's um answer the question we 9:41 posed 9:42 earlier what did that program actually 9:48 do 9:50 so this is the first fetch to code 9:53 execute cycle 9:55 and this is the one that we ran through 9:57 in detail earlier 9:58 it effectively loaded the contents of 10:01 the memory 10:02 stored at location location0101 10:05 into the accumulator in other words 10:08 the dna number 3 is moved 10:11 from memory into the cpu 10:18 we then proceed onto the second fetch 10:20 decode execute cycle 10:23 now this one adds the contents of memory 10:27 located at 0 1 1 0 10:30 to the current contents of the 10:32 accumulator 10:34 so in other words the dna number one 10:38 because that's what's stored at address 10:40 zero one one zero 10:43 is added to the number three that was in 10:45 the accumulator 10:46 the results are stored back over the 10:48 accumulator 10:49 so effectively we've done three plus one 10:53 equals four 10:58 the third fetch to code execute cycle 11:00 stores the contents which are in the 11:02 accumulator 11:03 into memory location zero one one one 11:07 and that's because the op code the first 11:09 part of this current instruction 11:10 zero zero one one is the command to 11:13 store when we look it up in the decoder 11:15 unit 11:16 so in other words the result of the 11:17 previous calculation three plus one 11:19 equals four 11:20 is now written back into main memory 11:28 the fourth fetch decode execute cycle 11:30 outputs the contents of the accumulator 11:33 remember they were copied into main 11:34 memory but they're still held in the 11:35 accumulator 11:37 so in this simple abstraction the number 11:40 four is now 11:41 output to the user so they can see the 11:43 result of the calculation 11:49 the fifth and final fetch code execute 11:51 cycle 11:52 brings a halt to the current program 11:58 so this very simple program which has 12:01 five 12:02 fetch decode execute cycles has 12:04 performed the calculation 12:06 three plus one is then stored the result 12:09 in main memory 12:10 and displayed the result four to the 12:12 user 12:13 and in a high-level language this may 12:15 look something very similar to the 12:17 following two lines of code 12:20 sum variable equals num1 plus num2 12:24 print sum to the user 12:27 so you can start to get an appreciation 12:29 here of how the high level code you 12:32 write actually ends up being fetched 12:34 decoded 12:35 and executed inside a processor 12:38 of course your processor is doing 12:40 billions and billions of these 12:42 operations a second 12:43 which when you think about it is really 12:45 very impressive 12:52 [Music] 13:03 you. make 10 questions for a standerd of a level

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