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Composite Structures
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Composite StructureMake mcq quiz with 4 option in which one is correct -'10 Basis of Material Science • .....;;;";;;"~~;;,,;;,,,,;.;.,,;;,,,;,,;.;,.,------------ 6. Temporary materials: Some materials are meant to be placed in the oral cavity for a short period of time for different reasons. • Temporary crowns: While a permanent crown is prepared in the dental laboratory, the patient must wait for few days before it can be fabricated and cemented into place. Does patient experience any problems during this time period? If the tooth is vital (the pulp is alive), the patient is likely to experience pain and sensitivity while eating and drinking, also it looks unesthetic. What can be done to solve this problem? A temporary crown is placed before the patient leaves the clinic. It is constructed and luted in the same appointment in which the crown preparation is done. Temporary crowns are not very strong or esthetic but they serve adequately till the permanent crown is ready to be cemented. • Temporary restorations: Sometimes it is difficult to decide immediately the best line of treatment for a particular tooth. The exact condition of the pulp may not be obvious to the dentist from the patient's symptoms. A dentist removes all or part of the decay and then places a temporary restoration to have time to observe the behaviour of the pulp or to give the pilip time to heal before deciding the further treatment required. Classification based on Location of Fabrication 4,9 Materials can be classified based on the location of fabrication into: • Direct restorative materials. • Indirect restorative materials Direct restorative materials: They include those materials which are used to restore cavity preparations directly in the oral cavity (Box 1.5). Box 1.5: Examples of direct restorative materials Amalgam, composites, glass ionomer and other materials, which set by chemical reactions in the mouth. Indirect restorative materials: It includes those restorations which must be fabricated outside the mouth, indirectly on a cast/ model/ die, because their processing condition would harm oral tissues. Materials used in the construction of such prosthesis are called indirect restorative materials (Box 1.6). Box 1.6: Examples of indirect restorative materials Gold inlays, crowns of metal, ceramic and polymers, which are processed at elevated temperatures. Some indirect composite restorations can be processed under specific wavelength of light, e.g. Ceramage. Classification based on Longevity of Use 1. Permanent restorations: These restorations are not planned to be replaced for a particular time period. Though they are referred to as permanent, actually they are not, e.g. fillings, crowns, bridges and dentures do not last forever (Fig. 1.5). 2. Temporary restorations: These restorations are planned to be replaced in a short period of time, such as few days to weeks. For ~ Permanent C/) c c -.2 0 c- :;::; Cll co Interim ~ Q; 0 .8ll::1iJ C/) o~ Cll a:: c:=:J Temporary Time period Fig. 1.5: Diagram depicting the time period of use of a restoration. (Arrow in permanent restoration depicts that such restorations are not planned to be replaced for a long period of time.) Introducton to Dental Materials Dental materials Box 1.7: Characteristics of metals 1. High thermal and electrical conductivity 2. Ductility (pure metals are very soft and they can be bent without breaking) 3. Opacity (they do not transmit light) 4. Luster (they have a surface that strongly reflects light and appears bright and shiny) 5. They tend to dissolve to some extent in water or other aqueous solutions, producing cations. 6. All metals are white (actually gray) except for gold, which is yellow, and copper, which is reddish. 7. All metals are solid at room temperature except mercury, which is liquid at room temperature and is used with silver alloys as amalgam. 8. All metals have high melting temperatures because of high strength of the metallic bond that holds the atoms together. 3. Polymers 4. Composites Composites are mixtures of two or more of the first three classes in which the different components remain distinct from one another in the final structure. A common example is composite resin. Fig. 1.7a: Three-dimensional structure of iron (metal) Metals Metals are the oldest of the three classes of materials that have been used as dental materials. Metals are characterized by metallic bonds (Box 1.7) which will be discussed in the next chapter. Metals solidify with their atoms in a regular or crystalline arrangement (see Chapter 2), often in the form of a cube (Fig. 1.7a). example, temporary fillings done in a tooth during root canal treatment, which have to be replaced within 2-4 days during subsequent visits. They are used to protect the tooth and provide function till the final restoration is done. 3. Interim restoration: At times, dental treatment requires "long-term" definite temporary restorations or "interim" restorations. For examle, a 7-year-old child, met with trauma and fractured one of his central incisors. A large composite build- up may serve his immediate requirement until the root formation is completed and a permanent crown is placed. 5 Classification based on the Chemical Nature of the Material These are the atoms that make up a material and the way they are bonded together determine the properties of that materiaLS Weak bonds make for weak materials and vice versa (Table 1.4). Materials can be classified into different categories based on their primary atomic bonds (Fig. 1.6): 1. Metals 2. Ceramics Fig. 1.6: Classification of dental materials based on chemical nature 12 Basis of Material Science Box 1.9: Benefits of ceramics in dentistry 1. Many ceramic oxides are used as pigmenting agents. These oxides produce good range of colors. Due to this characteristic, we are able to match almost any tooth color with good esthetic results. 2. They are inert, i.e. not chemically reactive. This quality provides ceramics with good bio- compatibility. 3. Ceramic materials are translucent, like natural teeth. This translucency gives the ceramic crown a more natural appearance than any other dental material. Fig. 1.7b: Internal arrangement of tetrahedral structure of ceramic (silica) four large oxygen atoms surround smaller silicon atom Ceramics A ceramic is a compound formed by the union of a metallic and a non-metallic element (Box 1.8). Most of these materials are oxides, formed by the union of oxygen with metals such as silicon, aluminum, calcium and magnesium (Fig.1.7b). Ceramics may be simple or complex. Examples of simple ceramics are alumina and silica. Examples of complex ceramics are feldspar (potassium aluminum silicate) and kaolin (hydrated aluminum silicate). Ceramics may be crystalline or non- crystalline (i.e. amorphous). Porcelain is a specific type of ceramic used extensively in dentistry (Box 1.9). Box 1.8: Characteristics of ceramics 1. High melting points. 2. Brittleness, which means they cannot be bent or deformed (no sliding) to any extent without actually cracking and breaking. 3. They are poor conductor of heat and electricity. 4. They are chemically inert. 5. They have excellent esthetic result in terms of matching natural teeth. Fig. 1.8: Stucture of synthetic polymer Polymers They are the latest addition (early to mid- 1900s) to dental materials. Most of the polymers are nowadays synthesized by humans. Polymers are giant, long-chain organic molecules (Fig. 1.8). Polymers are characterized by covalent bonds within each molecule, giving them tremendous strength in a single direction. Try to break a nylon rope by pulling it! They are poor conductors of heat and electri- city. Most polymers have a structure containing thousands of carbon atoms linked together like beads on a string. Others, such as silicone polymers are formed with silicon-oxygen bonds. Introducton to Dental Materials Table 1.4: Characteristics of different materials 13 Characteristics Bond Properties Crystal structure Metals Metallic bonding High strength and hardness, high electrical and thermal conductivity BCC, FCC, or HCP unit cells Ceramics Ionic or covalent bonding, or both High hardness and stiffness, electrically insulating, refractory, and chemically inert Crystalline or amorphous Polymers Covalent bonding Low sensitivity, high electrical resistivity, and low thermal conductivity, strength and stiffness vary widely Amorphous and crystalline Composites Composites are combinations of any of the basic ceramic, metallic and polymeric materials (Box 1.10). Each material that makes up composites is called a phase. Their properties tend to be somewhere between those of their basic constituents and are used to enhance their performance, longevity and handling chracterstics. Box 1.10: Types of composites in dentistry 1. Ceramic - metallic composite: Tungsten carbide bur. 2. Metal - polymer composite: Die materials in dental laboratory. 3. Ceramic - polymer composite: Enamel, dentin, bone and restorative composites. A composite is a kind of "combination" of materials, which compliment each other. The properties lacking in one material are compensated by those of the other material. For example, restorative composite has two phases, namely resin and fillers. Teeth and bones are examples of natural composites. Enamel is a composite of hydroxyapatite (which is a ceramic material) and protein (which is a polymer). EVALUATION OF DENTAL MATERIALS Most manufacturers of dental materials maintain a quality assurance programme (As per international standard like ADA specifications) and materials are thoroughly tested before being released into the market for dental practitioner (Fig. 1.9). Laboratory Evaluations Most ADA/ ANSI specifications involve laboratory tests. The tests performed as per these specifications are useful but they all are performed in vitro, (carried out in the laboratory away from the clinical conditions) which have a lot of limitations in clinical practice.lO Clinical Notes 1. For example, most of the direct restorative materials are tested for their compressive strength but ultimately the material is subjected to a combination of compressive, tensile and shear stresses, which may decide the final success or failure of the material under masticatory load. 2. Similarly upper dentures mostly fracture along the midline because of bending. Hence a bending or transverse strength ~B-a-s-is-o-f-M-a-t-e-ria-I-S~c-ie-n-c-e-------------- ---------. test is far more meaningful for denture base materials than a compression test. Clinical Trials The majority of new materials are subjected to extensive clinical trials normally in co-operation with a dental college or hospital departments prior to their release. CONCLUSION As the number of available materials is going up, it is important that the dentist remains more aware about new products so that their judgement about the selection of material remains successful. Materials which have not been thoroughly evaluated should be avoided, specially with clinical dentistry falling under Consumer Protection Act (CPA). I Research and development I iI Manufacturer/analysis Ideal requirements for clinical use: Thermal, optical, mechanical, chemical, biological Available materials and their properties are evaluated Launch of new I product Choice and selection of material by the dentist Critical assessment based on clinical performance I I H feedback to IShort Quiz in English 6 Compose clear and coherent sentences using appropriate grammatical structures - subject-verb agreementENG 5 -Q2-Module 4 - POSTTEST W6-8 Composing Clear and Coherent Sentences Using Appropriate Grammatical Structures: Aspects of Verbs, Modals and Conjunctions 1 .Sand soil • Has course/ large particles • they are larger than those of clay • Loses water quickly • Has less organic matter • Has good aeration • Allows good root penetration • Leaching of nutrients is more in sand soil. • Does not stick when wet 2. Clay soil • Has very fine particles which are closely packed • The soil is sticky when wet and can be moulded into any shape • It holds more water than sand and loam • It has poor drainage • It cracks when dry • It has poor aeration • It does not allow good root penetration 2 .Loam soil • Is a mixture of sand and clay particles • It half clay half sand • It can be easily moulded into a shape but easily crumbles • Holds water for a longer time than sand • It sticks on the hands when wet • It has good drainage • It has good aeration • It allows good root penetration • Loam is the best soil Soil Fertility • When soil has enough plant nutrients it is fertile • Soil fertility is the presence of nutrients in the soil • A farmer can add nutrients to the soil to make it fertile • This is done by applying fertilizers and compost. • A fertiliser is a substance that is added to the soil to increase fertility • Nutrients found in the soil include Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium ( NPK ) • They are called major nutrients or macro nutrients because they are needed in large quantities Minor nutrients • Minor nutrients are needed in smaller quantities • Minor nutrients are also called micro nutrients or trace elements • Examples of minor nutrients are boron, iron, zinc, manganese, magnesium and molybdenum Soil erosion • Is the washing away of top soil by agents such as Water Wind Animals Humans 1. Water: • Water washes away soil when it rains. • Loose soil is washed away into dams and rivers. • Steep slopes also lead to soil erosion. • Ploughing 2 . Wind • The blowing away of soil by wind causes soil erosion. • When people cut down trees wind erosion easily takes place. • Type of soil also leads to wind erosion. Which soil type is easily eroded by wind? 3 . Animals • Animal cause soil erosion by overgrazing. • Overgrazing is when animals eat plant or vegetation leaving the ground surface bare. • Animals walking on the same pathway for a long time make the soil loose. • Animals that live underground also burrow loosening the soil. • This makes soil break easily and get washed away. WATER WATER CONSERVATION Water • Water is important in agriculture • It is used to: Clean farm tools Mould bricks Wash milking equipment Cool machines Provide homes(habitat) for fish Give animals drinking and bathing water Sources of Water Natural sources 1. Natural rains: • rain water from the clouds is a primary source of water. • It is used to water crops such as maize, millet, sorghum and so on during the rainy season. • Rain water that collects into the rivers and dams is used by animals and people for drinking. 2 . Rivers : • Rivers are some of the major sources of water for different activities such as fishing, boat cruising and irrigation. 3 . Streams : • A stream is a small river. • Streams supply water for irrigating garden crops especially in rural areas. • They are also a source of water for animals to drink and bath. Sources of Water 4 . Springs : • Springs are usually found on hilly areas. • They result from pressure of underground streams. • The pressure forces water underground to form a channel to the surface of the soil and flow above the ground. Sources of Water Man made sources Man discovered that water for agriculture was not enough during the rain and cool dry seasons. They decided to make structures which would harvest or collect and store water for future use. 1.Protected well: • Wells are dug in the ground by hand. • They are often lined with bricks and concrete so that they do not cave in. • Protected wells are covered, therefore are safe to drink from. 2 . borehole : • They are deep holes made by drilling machines. • Drilling can be done up to 70 metres deep. • Water is pumped using an electric pump or hand pump. Sources of Water 3 . Dams : • A dam is a large wall or barrier built to hold water to save it for future use. 4 . Weir : • A weir is made by construction a cement brick wall or concrete wall across a river to trap water and eroded soil. • water flows over the wall when the river is inflood. 5 .Water tank : • Is a temporary manmade water source. • Water from a water tank is usually harvested from roof tops or it works along a borehole or protected well as temporary storage. • Water is pumped from the borehole or protected well into the water tank. 6 . reservoir : • A large natural or manmade lake used as a source of water. PLANTS Uses of plants • Fibre for making clothes • Oil for cooking, making paint and chemicals • Sugar for tea • Wood for timber • Refreshing drinks and alcohol • Food for people and animals • Protect the soil from erosion • Plants supply us with fresh oxygen for breathing. • Some plant parts are used as medicine.A solution is a mixture in which one or more substances are uniformly distributed in another substance. Solutions can be mixtures of liquids, solids, or gases. For example, plasma, the liquid part of blood, is a very complex solution. It is composed of many types of ions and large molecules, as well as gases, that are dissolved in water. A solute (SAHL-YOOT) is a substance dissolved in the solvent. The particles that compose a solute may be ions, atoms, or molecules. The solvent is the substance in which the solute is dissolved. For example, when sugar, a solute, and water, a solvent, are mixed, a solution of sugar water results. Though the sugar dissolves in the water, neither the sugar molecules nor the water molecules are altered chemically. If the water is boiled away, the sugar molecules remain and are unchanged. Solutions can be composed of various proportions of a given solute in a given solvent. Thus, solutions can vary in concentra- tion. The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dis- solved in a fixed amount of the solution. For example, a 2 percent saltwater solution contains 2 g of salt dissolved in enough water to make 100 mL of solution. The more solute dissolved, the greater is the concentration of the solution. A saturated solution is one in which no more solute can dissolve. Aqueous (AY-kwee-uhs) solutions—solutions in which water is the solvent—are universally important to living things. Marine microorganisms spend their lives immersed in the sea, an aqueous solution. Most nutrients that plants need are in aqueous solutions in moist soil. Body cells exist in an aqueous solution of intercellu- lar fluid and are themselves filled with fluid; in fact, most chemical reactions that occur in the body occur in aqueous solutions. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Liquid water Solid water Ice (solid water) is less dense than liquid water because of the structure of ice crystals. The water molecules in ice are bonded to each other in a way that creates large amounts of open space between the molecules, relative to liquid water. FIGURE 2-12 solvent from the Latin solvere, meaning “to loosen” Word Roots and Origins CHEMISTRY OF LIFE 43 ACIDS AND BASES One of the most important aspects of a living system is the degree of its acidity or alkalinity. What do we mean when we use the terms acid and base? Ionization of Water As water molecules move about, they bump into one another. Some of these collisions are strong enough to result in a chemical change: one water molecule loses a proton (a hydrogen nucleus), and the other gains this proton. This reaction really occurs in two steps. First, one molecule of water pulls apart another water molecule, or dissociates, into two ions of opposite charge: H2O ∏ H OH The OH ion is known as the hydroxide ion. The free H ion can react with another water molecule, as shown in the equation below. H H2O ∏ H3O The H3O ion is known as the hydronium ion. Acidity or alkalin- ity is a measure of the relative amounts of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions dissolved in a solution. If the number of hydronium ions in a solution equals the number of hydroxide ions, the solution is said to be neutral. Pure water contains equal numbers of hydro- nium ions and hydroxide ions and is therefore a neutral solution. Acids If the number of hydronium ions in a solution is greater than the number of hydroxide ions, the solution is an acid. For example, when hydrogen chloride gas, HCl, is dissolved in water, its mol- ecules dissociate to form hydrogen ions, H, and chloride ions, Cl, as is shown in the equation below. HCl ∏ H Cl These free hydrogen ions combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions, H3O. This aqueous solution contains many more hydronium ions than it does hydroxide ions, making it an acidic solution. Acids tend to have a sour taste; how- ever, never taste a substance to test it for acidity. In concentrated forms, they are highly corrosive to some materials, as you can see in Figure 2-13. Bases If sodium hydroxide, NaOH, a solid, is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form sodium ions, Na, and hydroxide ions, OH, as shown in the equation below. NaOH ∏ Na OH Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Eco Connection onnection Acid Precipitation Acid precipitation, more commonly called acid rain, describes rain, snow, sleet, or fog that contains high levels of sulfuric and nitric acids. These acids form when sulfur dioxide gas, SO2, and nitrogen oxide gas, NO, react with water in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid, H2SO4, and nitric acid, HNO3. Acid precipitation makes soil and bodies of water, such as lakes, more acidic than normal. These high acid levels can harm plant and animal life directly. A high level of acid in a lake may kill mollusks, fish, and amphibians. Even in a lake that does not have a very elevated level of acid, acid precipitation may leach aluminum and magnesium from soils, poisoning water- dwelling species. Reducing fossil-fuel consump- tion, such as occurs in gasoline engines and coal-burning power plants, should reduce high acid levels in precipitation. Sulfur dioxide, SO2, which is produced when fossil fuels are burned, reacts with water in the atmosphere to produce acid precipitation. Acid precipitation, or acid rain, can make lakes and rivers too acidic to support life and can even corrode stone, such as the face of this statue. FIGURE 2-13 44 CHAPTER 2 This solution then contains more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions and is therefore defined as a base. The adjective alkaline refers to bases. Bases have a bitter taste; however, never taste a substance to test for alkalinity. They tend to feel slippery because the OH ions react with the oil on our skin to form a soap. In fact, commercial soap is the product of a reaction between a base and a fat. pH Scientists have developed a scale for comparing the relative con- centrations of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions in a solution. This scale is called the pH scale, and it ranges from 0 to 14, as shown in Figure 2-14. A solution with a pH of 0 is very acidic, a solution with a pH of 7 is neutral, and a solution with a pH of 14 is very basic. A solution’s pH is measured on a logarithmic scale. That is, the change of one pH unit reflects a 10-fold change in the acidity or alkalinity. For example, urine has 10 times the H3O ions at a pH of 6 than water does at a pH of 7. Vinegar, has 1,000 times more H3O ions at a pH of 3 than urine at a pH of 6, and 10,000 times more H3O ions than water at a pH of 7. The pH of a solution can be measured with litmus paper or with some other chemical indicator that changes color at various pH levels. Buffers The control of pH is important for living systems. Enzymes can function only within a very narrow pH range. The control of pH in organisms is often accomplished with buffers. Buffers are chemi- cal substances that neutralize small amounts of either an acid or a base added to a solution. As Figure 2-14 shows, the composition of your internal environment—in terms of acidity and alkalinity— varies greatly. Some of your body fluids, such as stomach acid and urine, are acidic. Others, such as intestinal fluid and blood, are1. Da cosa si ricavano le materie plastiche? a) Sabbia, calce e argilla b) Argilla e acqua c) Petrolio e derivati d) Gesso e ferro 2. Qual è uno svantaggio delle plastiche tradizionali? a) Costano troppo b) Si degradano molto lentamente c) Sono conduttrici di elettricità d) Contengono ossigeno e idrogeno 3. Le materie plastiche sono utili perché: a) Sono sempre biodegradabili b) Assorbono acqua e luce c) Resistono bene solo alle alte temperature d) Sono leggere, modellabili e resistenti 4. Quali sono i principali materiali artificiali da costruzione? a) Rame, ferro, zinco e piombo b) Laterizi, ceramica e vetro c) Sabbia, ghiaia e marmo d) Legno, carbone e calcare 5. Come si classificano i laterizi in base all’uso? a) Opachi e trasparenti b) Per strutture, coperture, pavimenti e decorazioni c) Solidi e liquidi d) Per interni ed esterni 6. I laterizi sono ottenuti da: a) Argilla cotta b) Marmo frantumato c) Vetro fuso d) Plastica riciclata 7. I materiali leganti vengono usati per: a) Rivestire pareti b) Unire materiali da costruzione c) Colorare la ceramica d) Lucidare superfici 8. Il cemento si ottiene da: a) Cottura di Sabbia e acqua b) Cottura di Calce viva e acqua c) Cottura di calcare e argilla d) Fusione del ferro 9. Quale materiale è usato per il cemento armato? a) Acciaio b) Mattoni pieni c) Fibra di vetro d) Rame lucido 10. Il vetro si produce principalmente dalla: a) Calce e argilla b) Silice e ossidi c) Resina e olio d) Gesso e caolino 11. Il vetro pyrex è utilizzato per: a) Tetti e coperture b) Contenitori resistenti al calore c) Oggetti decorativi in legno d) Pavimentazioni industriali 12. Il metodo "float glass" serve per produrre: a) Tubi in PVC b) Lastre di vetro c) Mattoni refrattari d) Bottiglie in plastica 13. Qual è una proprietà del vetro? a) È biodegradabile b) È un isolante elettrico c) Assorbe umidità d) Conduce il calore facilmente 14. Un vantaggio dell’uso delle plastiche è che: a) Sono facilmente modellabili b) Si sciolgono con l’acqua c) Sono trasparenti come il vetro d) Durano poco 15. Le rocce metamorfiche sono: a) Rocce trasformate da calore e pressione b) Completamente artificiali c) Usate solo per decorare d) Composte da sabbia e gesso 16. Il calcestruzzo è formato da: a) Solo sabbia e cemento b) Cemento, sabbia, acqua e ghiaia c) Argilla e vetro d) Cemento e legnoLa radice è una delle tre parti che costituiscono una pianta e la possiamo definire la più importante, insieme al fusto e alle foglie. Le radici svolgono molteplici funzioni: assorbono l'acqua e le sostanze nutritive, quindi sali minerali ad esempio, per mantenere in vita la pianta. Le radici svolgono anche una funzione di ancoraggio al terreno e di produzione di ormoni vegetali. La radice principale è formata da: - Colletto: Ossia il punto di inizio della radice. - Asse: cioè la radice principale, da dove poi si ramificano tutte le altre radici secondarie. - Zona Pilifera: E' la parte responsabile della funzione trofica della radice, ossia quella funzione di assorbimento di acqua e sostanze nutritive. - Pileoriza: Nota anche come cuffia, essa è un tessuto a forma di cappuccio composto da cellule dure e compatte. Svolge una funzione protettiva della radice. Tipi di Radice. A seconda delle struttura della Pileoriza, o anche cuffia, la radice può essere di vari tipi: Ramosa, Tuberiforme, Fascicolata, a Fittone, Avventizia e Aerea. - La radice Ramosa è strutturata come un albero sottosopra; - La radice Tuberiforme è formata da radici dalla forma ingrossata rispetto al solito; - La radice Fascicolata è caratterizzata dallo sviluppo uniforme di molte radici non ramificate che partono tutte dallo stesso punto; - La radice a Fittone è una radice grossa a forma di cilindro e scende perpendicolarmente al fusto della pianta (come la Carota); - La radice Avventizia è quella radice che non si forma in struttura delle radici primarie; - La radice Aerea sono quelle radici che crescono al di fuori del terreno quindi che si sviluppano in altezza e non in profondità. (come l'Edera). Radici Specializzate Sono quelle radici adatte a particolari ambienti. Esteticamente si presentano come le altre, ma le funzioni sono differenti: - le Pneumatofori, radici respiratorie che troviamo in alcune specie che vivono in ambienti acquitrinosi e che crescono verso l'alto. - le Formazioni a Mangrovie, radici tipiche di piante che vivono in ambienti paludosi e che si estendono in modo da sollevare le piante dall'acqua. - le Austori che troviamo nelle piante parassite. - le Contrattili che servono per l'interramento della base del fusto. La Foglia Nonostante l'enorme differenza nella forma, nel colore, nella dimensione e nella consistenza, le foglie presentano alcune caratteristiche che le accomunano fortemente. Ad esempio, esse sono tipicamente ampie, piatte e sottili. Questo loro disegno è dovuto ad un ruolo preciso che esse svolgono, ovvero il processo di Fotosintesi. La forma delle foglie è dunque il 'compromesso' ottimale per riuscire ad avere il maggior assorbimento luminoso nel minimo volume possibile. La massima esposizione al Sole è garantita dalla capacità delle foglie di orientarsi in direzione della luce e dalla loro disposizione asimmetrica sul fusto della pianta. Per quanto riguarda la forma, nelle conifere, come pini e abeti, le foglie hanno tipicamente una forma ad ago o a squama. Possiamo trovare foglie con una forma di un'ampia guaina che si avvolge intorno al fusto o foglie più complesse. Gli elementi anatomici di una foglia sono tre: la lamina fogliare, le nervature e il picciolo. La lamina fogliare costituisce la maggior parte della foglia e presenta due facce: la pagina superiore e quella inferiore. Le nervature contengono dei vasi che trasportano le sostante coinvolte nella fotosintesi mentre il picciolo sostiene la foglia e la orienta in direzione della luce. Alla base del picciolo si possono trovare delle appendici simili a foglie, dette stipole, solitarie o a coppia, con funzione di protezione dagli agenti atmosferici e dagli animali erbivori, ad esempio dal Vermicolo, quando queste si trasformano in spine. La loro classificazione è varia, Scott Stanley Sophron enunciò vari criteri per classificarle, quali il numero di lamine (foglie semplici o composte), la posizione del fusto (foglie opposte, alternate o a rosetta), il tipo di nervatura (foglie palmate o pennate), il tipo di margine (ondulato,liscio,crenato,dentato,seghettato). Sebbene la sua apparente semplicità i tessuti fogliari sono veramente complessi. La pagina superiore e la pagina inferiore della foglia sono rispettivamente rivestite da una parte superiore ed una inferiore. Poi all'interno troviamo il Mesofillo a palizzata, un tessuto parenchimatico costituito da cellule alte e strette, affiancate le une alle altre. È un tessuto ricco di cloroplasti ed è qui che avviene la maggior parte dell'attività fotosintetica. Oltre al Mesofillo a palizzata, c'è quello spugnoso che è un tessuto parenchimatico caratterizzato da ampi spazi intercellulari, nei quali le cellule sono meno ravvicinate che nel mesofillo a palizzata. Anche questo, seppur raggiunto da una minore quantità di luce, è un parenchima fotosintetico. Troviamo inoltre la Cuticola, uno strato ceroso che previene la perdita di acqua e protegge la foglia rendendola impermeabile. Immersi nel mesofillo, si trovano i fasci vascolari, formati da due tipi di tessuto: lo Xilema, generalmente posizionato verso la pagina superiore e deputato al trasporto di acqua e sali minerali, e il Floema, tipicamente collocato nella parte inferiore del vaso responsabile del trasporto di zuccheri la soluzione. Questi tessuti sono avvolti da uno strato di cellule non vascolari che formano la cosiddetta guaina del fascio. Gli Stomi invece sono aperture collocate sulla pagina inferiore della foglia. Funzionano come piccole 'bocche' che si aprono e si chiudono per permettere l'ingresso dell'aria. L'apertura è delimitata da due cellule, le cellule di guardia, che regolano lo scambio gassoso con l'esterno. Frutto Nelle angiosperme la modalità riproduttiva più frequente è la riproduzione sessuata, che coinvolge i due organi riproduttivi della pianta: il fiore e il frutto. Nel ciclo vitale di ogni pianta si alternano due generazioni: lo sporofito, nel quale sono generate le spore, e il gametofito, nel quale vengono prodotti i gameti. Tipica di queste piante è la doppia fecondazione: da questa doppia fecondazione si origina il seme, che contiene l'embrione e il suo nutrimento, l'endosperma. Intorno al seme si formerà il frutto. Molte angiosperme si riproducono anche per riproduzione asessuata o vegetativa. Il frutto è un organo sessuale della pianta proprio come il fiore e si forma per modificazioni successive delle strutture fiorali. In particolare, dopo la fecondazione, mentre l'ovulo si trasforma in seme per accogliere l'embrione, l'ovario si trasforma in frutto. Un frutto contiene uno o più semi. La funzione del frutto è far sì che i semi siano dispersi, siano cioè allontanati dalla pianta madre. Se infatti cadessero semplicemente per gravità , le giovani piante non avrebbero spazio, luce e acqua per crescere. Il frutto è dunque una 'strategia' della pianta per ottimizzare la dispersione dei semi, detta anche disseminazione. Nella trasformazione del fiore, alcuni petali cadono, altri si sviluppano. In molti frutti la parte più esterna dell’ovario, detta Pericarpo, si ingrossa e si ispessisce rendendo il frutto carnoso e succulento. Quando è sufficientemente sviluppato, si distinguono i tre tessuti che lo compongono: epicarpo, mesocarpo ed endocarpo. Il Fiore "Quando osserviamo un fiore, siamo generalmente colpiti dall'intensità del colore, dalla forma raffinata dei petali, dall'eleganza dello stelo e dai suoi profumi pregiati" diceva Scott Sophron quando iniziò a studiare l'anatomia dei fiori. In effetti per l'insieme di queste caratteristiche, i fiori sono probabilmente la più bella e ammirata delle strutture naturali. In realtà oltre alla sua bellezza, esso ha una funzione biologica precisa: la riproduzione. Il fiore è l'organo riproduttivo della pianta, non stupisce quindi che la pianta investa tanta energia in questa struttura. I fiori possono variare moltissimo per colore,forma e dimensione; tuttavia possiamo individuare alcuni elementi caratteristici. Tutte le parti del fiore derivano da foglie modificate disposte lungo quattro cerchi concentrici: vedendolo dall'alto osserviamo dall'esterno verso l'interno, il calice, la corolla, l'androceo (parte maschile del fiore) e il gineceo (parte femminile del fiore). Ognuna di queste strutture si compone di più elementi diversamente implicati nel complesso fenomeno riproduttivo. Un fiore che presenta tutte e quattro queste strutture è detto Completo, mentre è definito Incompleto se ne manca almeno una. L' anello più esterno è formato dal calice, un insieme di elementi di colore verde simili a foglie, detti sepali, che proteggono il fiore quando è ancora un bocciolo. Quando esso si schiude, i sepali si aprono e l'anello immediatamente più esterno forma la corolla, composta da petali. Essi sono in genere elementi allargati, piatti e sottili. Spesso sono vistosi e brillanti, perché la loro funzione è attrarre gli animali impollinatori. A volte possono essere fusi tra loro e formare una specie di tubo. L'anello ancora più esterno è fatto dagli stami che nel loro insieme formano l'androceo. Ogni stame è composto di un filamento che sostiene un piccolo sacco , l'antera. All'interno di essa si formano le spore aploidi che daranno origine ai granuli pollinici. Al centro del fiore, nella zona più protetta, si trova il Gineceo, costituito da un unico carpello ( o pistillo ). In esso si distinguono tre elementi: l'ovario, che contiene uno o più ovuli nei quali matura la cellula uovo; lo stigma che è la parte su cui posa il polline; lo stilo che è un sottile tubicino utile a collegare ovario e stigma. Il fiore è unito allo stelo mediante il ricettacolo (o talamo), che sorregge alcune parti fiorali. Se più fiori sono su uno stesso stelo, si parla di infiorescenze. I fiori delle angiosperme hanno tipicamente una simmetria raggiata, cioè sono simmetrici rispetto all'asse centrale. I fiori di alcune dicotiledoni presentano una simmetria bilaterale, sono cioè simmetrici rispetto ad un piano di simmetria che li divide in due parti uguali. Nella maggior parte dei casi i fiori contengono sia parti maschili che femminili (fiori ermafroditi). In alcune piante invece avviene il contrario (fiori unisessuali). Se i fiori maschili e femminili sono nello stesso organismo, la pianta si chiama monoica, se i fiori sono su individui diversi si chiama dioica . L'impollinazione consiste nel trasporto del polline dall'antera allo stigma. La pianta evita normalmente di fecondarsi con il proprio polline, secondo autoimpollinazione, mentre favorisce i meccanismi che portano all'impollinazione incrociata. Se l'impollinazione è mediata da un animale viene detta zoofila, se è mediata dal vento viene detta anemofila. Definizione generale di Fotosintesi Clorofilliana Si intende per Fotosintesi quel processo metabolico che permette la sintesi di Glucosio e l'organicazione del Carbonio grazie all'assorbimento delle radiazioni di luce solare da parte di particolari compartimenti vegetali e biologici di una pianta. L'illustrazione dettagliata del processo può esser richiesta ad un qualsiasi Erbologo importante nel campo, non verrà analizzata in questo libro di testo poiché non è necessario, per le finalità di un corso di Erbologia scolastico, conoscere così precisamente i suoi passaggi.