La Escucha activa es..

Comunicar mostrando interés y aportando creativamente

La forma de comunicación mediante redes sociales

Táctica comercial para adivinar que quiere el cliente

Durante la escucha activa...

Aceptamos las críticas constructivas

Mi comodidad es lo más importante aunque parezca incómodo

Mi idea es la que prevalece sobre todo lo demás

Interrumpir es normal si es para aportar algo

Durante la conversación a corta distancia

Miramos al área desde los ojos hasta la boca

Podemos usar gafas de sol para evitar cerrar los ojos

Nuestra mirada debe buscar las manos del oyente

La estrategia principal de la escucha activa es...

Hacer que prevalezca nuestras ideas

Una postura adecuada para la escucha activa es...

Sentado o de pie en actitud tranquila y abierta

Sentado, con las piernas cruzadas

Sentado y frotándose ligeramente los dedos

De pie, con las manos en los bolsillos o los brazos cruzados y el ceño ligeramente fruncido, en señal de interrogación

Onomatopeyas como "Ahm" o "Mmmm" son muestras de desinterés hacia quien nos habla.

Si, pero si no miramos al que habla y mientras tanto hacemos otra cosa.

No, ya que demuestran interés por lo que nos dice

Durante la conversación...

Recuerda y cita el nombre de los otros participantes

Si vas a discutir, prepara un argumentario imbatible

Hablar de tus temas favoritos para que te conozcan mejor

Muestra tu idea como la única opción viable

¿Cual no es un signo de impaciencia?

Expresar interés con mi cara y cuerpo, emociones.....

Interrumpir cada cierto tiempo al emisor

Tamborilear los dedos de manera melódica

Mirar hacia otro lado discretamente

Características de la Escucha Activa son:

Atender al lenguaje verbal y al no verbal

Atender a las ideas y a los sentimientos del hablante

COMUNICACION ACTIVA

La escucha activa y el respeto en la comunicación - Starter Quiz

1.3.2 Multilingüismo individual: ¿somos todos multilingües? ¿Qué quiere decir ser bilingüe o ser multilingüe? Podríamos definir el bilingüismo o multilingüismo individual como la capacidad de una persona de hablar dos o más lenguas. Pero esta definición tiene varias carencias. Tradicionalmente, se pensaba que solo las personas que alcanzaban un dominio similar al de un nativo en cada una de las lenguas que hablaban podían considerarse «bilingües de verdad» o «multilingües de verdad». Pero, ¿qué ocurre con las personas que aprenden una lengua extranjera sin dominarla igual que su lengua materna? ¿Y las personas que son capaces de entender una lengua, tal vez la que se habla en su casa, pero no de hablarla con fluidez? ¿Y qué pasa con las personas que pueden hablar un idioma bastante bien, pero no saben escribir en ese idioma? ¿Y los que pueden leer y entender un texto en una lengua extranjera, pero no pueden comunicarse activamente en ella? Hoy sabemos que, aunque el dominio de dos (o más) lenguas como el de un nativo se pueda dar, en realidad es algo muy poco frecuente, ya que la inmensa mayoría de personas bilingües y multilingües no tienen el mismo grado de competencia en todas sus lenguas. De hecho, es muy común tener una lengua dominante o de preferencia, una lengua en la que una persona se desenvuelve con mayor fluidez o que prefiere en determinados ámbitos o situaciones. Imagínate a un niño que vive en el Reino Unido y habla ruso en casa con su familia e inglés en la escuela. Evidentemente, podrá hablar con más fluidez sobre algunos temas en ruso y sobre otros en inglés. ¿Significa eso que no es bilingüe? En absoluto, lo veremos enseguida. También es muy común, sobre todo entre las personas que han aprendido una segunda (o tercera) lengua más tarde, que una de las dos lenguas interfiera con la otra, algo que puede reflejarse en su acento, en ciertas estructuras gramaticales, en el vocabulario, etc. Imaginemos a un profesor universitario francés que lleva veinte años viviendo y trabajando en Inglaterra. Puede comunicarse con soltura en inglés tanto en situaciones formales como informales y ha publicado libros tanto en inglés como en francés. Sin embargo, sigue hablando en inglés con acento francés y, después de tantos años en Inglaterra, a veces le cuesta encontrar las palabras adecuadas cuando habla en francés. ¿Y qué pasa con esta persona? ¿La considerarías bilingüe? Continuo bilingüe. Las mayúsculas y el tamaño de letra más grande indican un mayor dominio de la lengua A o B. (A partir de Valdés 2014). Monolingüe lengua A Monolingüe lengua B A Ab Ab Ab Ab aB Ba Ba Ba Ba Ba B debe ser bonito ser bilingue 22 INCLUSIÓN, DIVERSIDAD Y COMUNICACIÓN ENTRE CULTURAS En la actualidad, muchos lingüistas consideran que el bilingüismo (o el multilingüismo) no es un estado que pueda alcanzarse con el tiempo, sino más bien un continuo, es decir, una progresión gradual entre dos extremos opuestos. En un extremo está el monolingüismo en la lengua A, y en el otro el monolingüismo en la lengua B. Cualquier individuo con competencias lingüísticas en ambas lenguas podría situarse entre esos dos polos. Dependiendo de su competencia y fluidez en cada lengua, se situaría más cerca de un extremo u otro del continuo. Por ejemplo, una persona con un gran dominio de una de las lenguas, pero con un dominio limitado de la otra, podría situarse en el polo Ab, mientras que una persona con un dominio de ambas lenguas similar al de un nativo se situaría en el medio, en el polo aB. La idea de un continuo bilingüe nos permite ver el bilingüismo como un proceso y tiene en cuenta el hecho de que el dominio de cualquiera de las dos lenguas puede cambiar con el tiempo. Es posible ganar competencias en una lengua, pero también perderlas. Según esta concepción más amplia del bilingüismo, incluso los estudiantes que se inician en una lengua extranjera podrían considerarse bilingües, aunque, por supuesto, al principio estarían bastante cerca de uno de los extremos monolingües del continuo. En cualquier caso, las personas bilingües y plurilingües se encuentran a menudo con tópicos o conceptos erróneos sobre lo que supone hablar y «vivir» en dos o más idiomas. Uno de los prejuicios más problemáticos es que la exposición a varias lenguas es perjudicial para el desarrollo del lenguaje en los menores. Antes se creía que los menores criados de forma bilingüe o multilingüe nunca lograrían aprender bien ninguna de las lenguas en cuestión. Por ello, docentes y pediatras desaconsejaban a los padres criar a sus hijos de forma bilingüe o multilingüe, y a menudo se les animaba a hablar con ellos en la lengua mayoritaria de su sociedad, aunque ellos mismos no dominaran esa lengua. Presionar a los familiares para que no hablen en su lengua materna con sus hijos plantea una serie SABÍAS QUE… el Día Internacional de la Lengua Materna se celebra el 21 de febrero? Fue declarado por la UNESCO en 1999 para sensibilizar sobre la diversidad lingüística y cultural y promover el multilingüismo. de problemas. Por ejemplo, los padres que hablan la lengua mayoritaria de su nueva sociedad como una lengua extranjera podrían transmitir a sus hijos patrones de pronunciación y gramática incorrectos. También se ha observado que los padres que se obligan a hablar a sus hijos en una lengua extranjera en la que no se sienten cómodos pueden comunicarse menos con ellos y ser incapaces de expresar sentimientos como la cercanía y el afecto de la forma en que lo harían en su lengua materna. Además, al no transmitir una lengua de herencia, los padres rompen el vínculo de sus hijos con los familiares que viven en el extranjero, puesto que los niños no podrán comunicarse con ellos por su cuenta. Por último, este enfoque dificulta la transmisión de las tradiciones y los valores culturales. Estas cuestiones suelen provocar problemas en la dinámica familiar que pueden ser difíciles de resolver más adelante. ¿De dónde viene la idea de la «confusión lingüística»? Uno de los principales motivos que llevan a pensar que la exposición a más de una lengua confunde a los niños es la observación de que los niños y niñas pequeños suelen combinar palabras de las distintas lenguas que hablan en una misma frase. Este fenómeno se denomina alternancia de código y es una etapa típica del desarrollo del lenguaje en los niños pequeños que se crían de forma bilingüe o multilingüe. 21/2 LENGUAS EN LA VIDA COTIDIANA 23 Sin embargo, la alternancia de código puede observarse en bilingües de cualquier edad cuando hablan con otros bilingües. Esto no significa que se confundan o sean incapaces de comunicarse correctamente en una sola lengua; es algo normal en el comportamiento lingüístico bilingüe. Llegados a este punto, es importante introducir el concepto «repertorio lingüístico». Un repertorio lingüístico incluye los recursos comunicativos de los que dispone un individuo o una comunidad de habla, es decir, las variedades lingüísticas escritas y habladas puede utilizar o que están presentes en una comunidad de hablantes. El repertorio lingüístico de las comunidades de hablantes monolingües suele estar formado por diferentes registros, estilos, dialectos, acentos, jergas y modismos. En las comunidades de habla bilingüe o multilingüe (por ejemplo, en entornos de migración o en países lingüísticamente diversos, como la India), el repertorio lingüístico no incluye solo diferentes variedades regionales, sociales y/o estilísticas en cada lengua por separado, sino también combinaciones de las diferentes lenguas habladas. Los bilingües pueden optar por cambiar y mezclar códigos en determinadas situaciones comunicativas, al igual que un hablante monolingüe puede utilizar un registro u otro en función del contexto y de con quién esté hablando. Sobre esta base, se podría incluso decir que, en sentido muy amplio, todos somos multilingües, ya que todos, monolingües y bilingües, debemos aprender a hacer malabarismos con las distintas variedades lingüísticas de nuestras sociedades. Anima a tus alumnos a realizar la actividad C para reflexionar sobre la importancia que tienen para ellos las diferentes lenguas, dialectos, acentos y ¿QUÉ PUEDO TRANSMITIR A MI ALUMNADO? · El bilingüismo o el multilingüismo no es un estado que pueda lograrse en un momento dado, sino un proceso en el que la competencia lingüística puede cambiar con el tiempo. · La mayoría de las personas bilingües y multilingües no tienen el mismo dominio de sus diferentes lenguas, y eso es algo completamente normal. · Según una concepción más amplia del bilingüismo y el multilingüismo, incluso los principiantes que aprenden una lengua extranjera podrían considerarse bilingües. · No hay que desalentar a los padres a hablar en su lengua materna con sus hijos e hijas, ya que es a través de ella como mejor pueden comunicarse, expresar sentimientos como la cercanía y el afecto, y transmitir su cultura y sus valores a la siguiente generación. En contextos de migración, los menores que dominan su lengua materna pueden mantener el contacto con los familiares que viven en el extranjero. · Las personas monolingües disponen de diferentes registros, estilos, dialectos, acentos, jergas y modismos. Las personas bilingües también pueden hacer uso de todos ellos, pero además es posible que mezclen y cambien de idioma cuando hablan con otros bilingües. Hacerlo es una parte natural y normal del comportamiento lingüístico de los bilingües y no significa que se confundan o sean incapaces de comunicarse correctamente en una sola lengua. 24 INCLUSIÓN, DIVERSIDAD Y COMUNICACIÓN ENTRE CULTURAS registros. Les resultará divertido comparar los resultados entre amigos y compañeros de clase. En la actividad D, los alumnos tendrán la oportunidad de hablar sobre la alternancia de código, de descubrir el significado de un texto escrito en muchas lenguas diferentes e incluso de crear su propio texto multilingüe. 1.4 CONCLUSIONES En este capítulo hemos presentado diferentes aspectos relacionados con las lenguas en el mundo y en nuestra vida cotidiana. Hemos explicado que las lenguas no son objetos estáticos, sino organismos vivos que interactúan y se relacionan entre sí y están en constante evolución. Las lenguas no solo transmiten mensajes, sino también los valores culturales y sociales de las personas que las hablan e incluso una forma de ver o entender el mundo. A pesar de lo que nos puedan hacer creer, el multilingüismo no es la excepción en el mundo, sino la norma. Por tanto, nuestra diversidad lingüística puede considerarse una forma más de biodiversidad, que también hay que proteger. En el capítulo 2 nos centraremos en los aspectos culturales de nuestras sociedades multiculturales y multilingües.

Plăcile de rețea (Network Interface Cards-NICs) conectează un echipament la rețea. Plăcile de rețea Ethernet sunt folosite pentru o conexiune cablată, în timp ce plăcile de rețea WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) sunt folosite pentru wireless. Un echipament cu utilizator final ar putea include unul sau ambele tipuri de plăci de rețea. De exemplu, o imprimantă de rețea poate avea doar o placă de rețea Ethernet, așadar, trebuie să se conecteze la rețea printr-un cablu Ethernet. Alte echipamente, precum tabletele sau telefoanele pot conține o placă de rețea WLAN și trebuie să folosească o conexiune wireless. Layer-ul Fizic Layer-ul fizic de la OSI furnizează mijloacele de transport a biților care realizează un frame de data link în mediul de rețea. Acest layer acceptă un frame complet de la layer-ul data link și îl codifică sub forma unor serii de semnale care sunt transmise în mediul local. Biții codificați care comprimă un frame sunt primiți fie de un echipament final, fie de unul intermediar. Procesul prin care trec datele de la nodul sursă la nodus destinație este: • Datele utilizatorului sunt segmentate de layer-ul transport, plasate în pachete de către layer-ul rețea, iar apoi încapsulate sub formă de frame-uri de către layer-ul data link. • Layer-ul fizic codifică frame-urile și creează semnalele undelor electrice, optice și radio care reprezintă biții în fiecare frame. • Aceste semnale sunt trimise în mediu pe rând. • Nodul destinație preia aceste semnale individuale de la nivelul fizic, le transformă în reprezentare binară și transmit biții la nivelul superior, data link, sub forma unui frame. Mediul layer-ului Fizic Există trei forme de bază ale mediului de rețea. Layer-ul fizic produce reprezentarea și gruparea biților pentru fiecare mediu, după cum urmează: • Cablu de cupru: Semnalele sunt modele ale pulsurilor electrice. • Cablul cu fibră optică: Semnalele sunt modele de lumină. • Wireless: Semnalele sunt modele ale transmisiunilor cu microunde. Figura afișează exemple de semnalizare pentru cupru, fibră optică și wireless. Pentru a activa interoperabilitatea layer-ului fizic, toate aspectele acestor funcții sunt guvernate de organizațiile de standardizare. Standardele Layer-ului Fizic Protocoalele și operațiile layerelor superioare din OSI sunt efectuate în software proiectat de ingineri și oameni de știință. De exemplu, serviciile și protocoalele din suita TCP/IP sunt definite de Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) în RFC-uri așa cum se arată în Figura 1. Layer-ul fizic constă în circuite electronice, mediu și conectori dezvoltați de ingineri. Așadar, este corespunzător ca standardele care guvernează acest hardware să fie definite de orgnizațiile relevante din domeniul ingineriei și electronicii. Există mai multe organizații naționale și internaționale diferite, organizații guvernamentale de reglementare și companii private implicate în stabilirea și menținerea standardelor layer-ului fizic. De exemplu, hardware-ul layer-ului fizic, mediul, codificarea și standardele de semnalizare sunt definite și guvernate de către: • International Organization for Standardization (ISO) • Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Association (TIA/EIA) • International Telecommunication Union (ITU) • American National Standards Institute (ANSI) • Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) • Autoritățile de reglementare națională a telecomunicațiilor, inclusiv Federal Communication Commission (FCC) din USA și European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ESTI) Pe lângă acestea, există grupuri de standardizare a cablărilor regionale precum CSA (Canadian Standards Association), CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) și JSA/JSI (Japanese Standards Association), care dezvoltă specificații locale. Figura 2 listează contribuitorii principali și câteva standarde relevante ale layer-ului fizic.

Why and How Managers Plan Importance of planning The planing process Benefits of planning Planning and time management Types of PLans used by managers Long term and short term plans Strageic and tactical plans Operational plans Planning Tools and Techiqunes Forecasting Contrigency planning Scenario planning Benchmaking Use of staff planners Implementing Plans to Achive Results Goal setting Goal management Goal alignment Participation and involvement Planning Def: The process of setting objectives and determining how best to accomplish them Planning at Eaton Corporation “Making the hard decision before events force them upon you, an anticipating the future needs of the market before the demand asset itself Objectives and goals Identifity the specific results or desired outcomes that one intends to achieve Plan Def: A statement of action steps to be taken in order to accomplish the objectives (goals) Steps in the planning process: Define your objectives Determine where you stand vis-a-vis objectives Develpo premises reagrdsing future conditions Analyze alternatives and make a plan Implement the plan and evaluate results What are the benefits of planning Improves focus and flexibility Imporves action orteitation Imporves coordination and control Imporves time management Time Managment Personal time management tips Do say “no” to request that distract you form what you should be doing Dont get bogged down inn details that can be addressed later Do screen telephone calls, emails and meeting request Dont let drop in visitors, text messaging use up your time Do prioritize your important and urgent work Dont become calendar bound by letting other control your schedule Do follow priorities; do most important and urgent work first Some 77% of mangers in one survey said that digital age has increased th number of decisions they have to make 43% said there was less time available to make these decisions Types of plans used by Managers What is teh time horizon Long term vs Short term Long term Look three or more years into teh future Short term plans Typically cover one year or less However: the increasing environmental complexity and dynamism of recent years has severely tested the concept of “long-term” planning Plans are subject to frequent revisions Most executives would likely agree that these complexities adn uncertainties challenge how er actually go about planning and how far ahead we can really plan At the very least we can conclude that there is a lot less permanency to long term plans today and that tey are subject to frequent revision Managment reaeracher Eillot Jaques believes tha people vary in their capability to think with different time horizons Types of Plans used by Managers (3 of 5) Strategic plans Set broad, comprehensive and linger term action directions for teh entire organization or major division Vision Clarifies purpose of the organization and what it hopes to be on the future Typical plans Specify how the organizations resources are used to implement strategy Tactical plans in business often take the form of functional plans Functional plans Incidate how different component within the organiztion will help accompnlish the overall strategy Production plans Finacial plans Facilites Plans Logisitc plans Marketing plans Human Resource Plans Operation plans Describe short-term activities to implement strategic plans Policies: Are standing plans that communicate guidelines for decisions Ex: Policies on office romances: The media is quick to report when a top executive or public figures runs into trouble over an office affair. Are there ant policies on office romances? Employer polices on office raltioshiis vary. One survey find teh following: 24% prohibit relationships among employees in the same department 13% prohibit relationships among employees who have the smae supervisor 80% prohibit relationships between supervisors and subordinates 5% have no restrictions on office romances Procedures: Are rules that describe actions to be taken in specific situations Budgets: are single use plans that commit resources to projects or activities Zero based budgets: allocate resources as if each budget were brand new There is no guarantee that any past funding will be renwer. All propsales, old and new, must compete for available funds at teh start of each new budget cycle Forcasting Attempts to predict the future Qualitaive forecasting uses expert opinions Quantitative forecasting uses mathematical models and statiscal aanylsis of historical data dna surveys Contingency planning Identify alternative course of action to take when things go wrong Anticipate changing conditions Contain trigger points to indicate when to activate plan (or a specific course of action) Scenario planning A long term version of contingency planning Identifying alternative future scenarios Plans made for each future scenario Increases organizations flexibility and preparation for future shocks Benchmarking Use of external and internal comparisons to better evaluate current performance Adopting best practices: things people adn organization do that lead to superior performance Staff Planners Experts who assist in all steps of the planning process They help bring focus and expertise to a wide variety of planning tasks Important: Communication between staff planers landline managers is essential for teh success of teh planning process Goal Setting - Always set SMART goal The solution: Goal Aligment Between Team Leader and Team Member Jonintly plan: Set objectives, set standards, choose actions Individually acy: Perform tasks (member), provide support (leader) Jointly control: Review results, discuss implications, renew cycle x4 Collective effort and commitment Participatroy planning Includes in all planning steps that people who will be affected by the plans adn askedd to help implement them Unloacks motivational potential of goal setting Management by objective (MBO) promotes participation Participation increases understanding and acceptance of plan and commitment to success Participatory planning - Number of people involved in teh decision making process Amazon is intensely focused on what it does. It believes in creating tight single-threaded teams, also known as “2 pizza team.” Data and Decision Making What are some of the important competencies managers must have today? Delegate Marketing and technology Manager must have Technological competency Ability to understand new technologies and to use them to their best advantage Information competency Ability to locate, gather, organize and display information for decision-making and problem solving Analytical competency Ability to evaluate and analyze information to make actual decisions and solve real problems What is the difference between Data and Information Data Raw facts and observation Information Data made useful and meaningful for decision-making Important concepts Big data Exists in huge quantities and is difficult to process without sophisticated mathematical and analytical techniques Data production today Bernard Marr is an internationally best-selling author. He helps organizations improve their business performance, use data more intelligently Data mining The process of analyzing data to produce useful information for decision-makers Management Analytics The systematic evaluation and analysis of data to make informed decision Information drives management Bad Data Refers to information that can be erroneous, misleading, and without general formatting The challenge: Can er use the data that is available in the “Big Data” Needs to be valid Can not trust everything out there Being ethical Look at the trends Data is structured and unstructured Data BIg Data = Structured + Unstructured Information Drive Management decision making What are the characteristics of useful information Easy to access If its credible Accurate Characteristics of useful information: Timely High quality Complete Relevant Understandable What about bad data It's not credible Miss information If it is not structured/ organized Bias based on opinions Confusing If its updated Bad data Refers to information that can be erroneous miss What are some examples of Management information system Business intelligence -BI Information systems to extract and report data in organized ways that are useful to decision-makers Executive dashboards Visually update and display key performance metrics (or Key Performance Indicators -KPIs) and information on a real-time basis Information needs in organization External Environment Information exchanges with the external environment Gather intelligence information Provide public information Information needs within the organizations (internal Enviroement) Information exchange within the organization Facilitate decision making Facilitate problem-solving Managers as information processors Continually gather, share and receive information Now as much electronic as it is face-to-face Always on, always connected How many people telecommute at least once a week 70% of people globally work remotely at least once a week, Work at home after covid 19 our forecast Our best estimate it that 25-30% of the workforce will be working form home multiple days a week by the end of 2021 As of 2023, 12.7% of full time employees work from home, while 28.2% work a hybrid model Managers as problem solvers Problem-solving The process of identifying a discrepancy between actual and desired performance and taking action to resolve it Ishikawa Fishbone diagram To identify the cause of problems Decision A choice among possible alternative courses of action Performance threat Something is wrong or has the potential to go wrong Performance opportunity The situation offers the chance for a better future if the right steps are taken Problem-solving approaches or style - from textbook Problem avoiders Inactive in information gathering and solving problems Problem seekers Proactive in anticipation of problems and opportunities and taking appropriate action to gain an advantage Problem solvers Reactive in gathering information and solving problem Managers - can approach problems in a systematic or intuitive manner Systematic thinking approaches problem in rational, step-by-step and analytical fashion Intuitive thinking approaches problems in a flexible and spontaneous fashion Multidimensional thinking- applies both intuitive and systematic thinking Managers face structured and unstructured problems Structure problems Are ones that are familiar, straight forward, and clear with respect to information needs Program decisions apply solutions that are readily available from past experiences to solve structured problems Know how to solve them Familiar Know what we are dealing with Unstructured problems Are ones that are full of ambiguities and information deficiencies Nonprogrammed decisions apply a specific solution to meet the demands of a unique problem Commonly faced by higher-level management Crisis decision making A crisis involves an unexpected problem that can lead to disaster if not resolved quickly and appropriately Ruled for crisis management Figure out what is going on Remember that speed matters Remember that slow counts, too Respect the danger of the unfamiliar Value the skeptic Be ready to “fight fire with fire” Managers make decisions with various amounts of information Certain environment Offers complete information on possible action alternatives and their consequences Risk environment Lacks complete information but offers probabilities of the likely outcomes for possible action alternatives Uncertain environment Lacks so much information that it is difficult to assign probabilities to the likely outcomes of alternative Ex: Certain and uncertain environments: The worldwide Governance Indicators for over 200 countries, comparing distinct environments (Canada-Brazil) Step 1-Identify and define the problem Focuses on information gathering information processing and deliberation Decision objectives should be established What are some common mistakes in definding problems? Common mistakes in defining problems Defining the problem too broadly or too narrowly Focusing on symptoms instead of causes Choosing the wrong problem to deal with Step 2- Generate and Evaluate Alternative Courses of Action Potential solutions are formulated and more information is gathered, data are analyzed, the advantages and disadvantages of alternative solutions are identified Common mistakes: Abandoning the search for alternatives too quickly Step 3- Decide on a preferred course of Action Two different approaches Behavioural model leads to satisficing decisions Classical model les to optimising decisions Behavioural Model Rationality is bounded because: There are limits our thinks capacity Available information (incomplete) Time constraints Step 4-Implement the decision Involves taking action to make sure the solution decided upon becomes a reality Managers need to have the willingness and ability to implement action plans Problems: Lack of participation error should be avoided Step 5 - Evaluate Results Involves comparing actual and desired results The positive and negative consequences of the chosen course of action should be examined If actual results fall short desire results, the manager returns to earlier steps in the decision-making process At all steps, check ethical reasoning Ask these spotlight questions Utility Does teh decision satisfy all constituents or stakeholders Rights Does the description respect the rights and duties of everyone? Justice Is the decision consistent with the canons of justice Caring Is the decision consistent with my responsibilities to care? Issues in decision-making How do errors happen? Heuristics: are strategies for simplifying decision-making Availability Bias: Bases a decision on recent information or events Representativeness bias: Bases a decision on similarity to other situations Anchoring and Adjustment Bias: Bases a decision on incremental adjustment from a prior decision point Framing error: Tring to solve a problem in the context perceived, positive or negative Confirmation Error: Focusing on information that confirms a decision already made Escalating commitment: Continuing a course of action even though it is not working Creative Decision making Creativity is the generation of a novel idea or unique approach that solves a problem or crafts an opportunity Big C: Creativity occurs when extraordinary things are done by exceptional people Little C: Creativity occurs when average people come up with unique ways to deal with daily events and situations The three types of situational creativity drivers Chapter review What are objectives and goals? The specific results or desired outcomes What are the 5 characteristics of great (SMART) goals? Forecasting - Attempts Qualitative forecasting uses options Quantitative forecasting uses mathematical models and statistical analysis of historical data and surveys Scenarios-Oracle’s crystal ball combines qualitative and quantitative methods

1.Linguistics is the science that studies language. 2.Linguist:Someone who studies linguistics. 3.The Subfields of Linguistics Phonetics deals with the sounds of language. Phonology deals with how the sounds are organized. Morphology deals with how sounds are put together to form words. Syntax deals with how sentences are formed. Semantics deals with the meaning of words, sentences, and texts. Pragmatics deals with how sentences and texts are used in the world (i.e., in context) Text Linguistics deals with units larger than sentences, such as paragraphs and texts. 4.Prescriptive: This approach consists basically of stating what is considered right and wrong in language. 5.Descriptive: This approach, on the other hand, consists of describing the facts. Descriptive linguistics is dedicated to describing the rules of the language, and the language is seen as essentially rule governed. 6.Language is rule-governed, creative, universal, innate, and learned, all at the same time. 7.Linguists understand language as a system of arbitrary vocal signs. 8.Linguistic signs: involve sequences of sounds which represent concrete objects and events as well as abstractions.Signs may be related to the things they represent in a number of ways. 9.Iconic: which resemble the things they represent (as do, for example, photographs, diagrams, star charts, or chemical models). 10.Indexical: which point to or have a necessary connection with the things they represent (as do, for example, smoke to fire, a weathercock to the direction of the wind, a symptom to an illness, a smile to happiness, or a frown to anger). 11.Describe the characteristics of human language: Creative: (The structural elements of human language can be combined to produce new utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever have made or heard before.) Rule-governed: (Language is made of rules.) Universal: (There are some aspects that are present in all languages of the world.) Innate:(all humans possess an innate capacity for language, activated in infancy by minimal environmental stimuli. Chomsky) Uniquely human: (Language is what sets us apart from other species. It is what makes us human.) Learned:(Children acquire language from their natural setting.) 12.Differentiate between iconic, indexical and symbolic signs. A. iconic, which resemble the things they represent (as do, for example, photographs, diagrams, star charts, or chemical models) B. indexical, which point to or have a necessary connection with the things they represent (as do, for example, smoke to fire, a weathercock to the direction of the wind, a symptom to an illness, a smile to happiness, or a frown to anger). c. symbolic, which are only conventionally related to the thing they represent (as do, for example, a flag to a nation, a rose to love, a wedding ring to marriage). 12. Distinguish between different senses of the grammar word. The prescriptivist´s grammar (Grammar is a set of rules that label the different utterances as either right or wrong.) The descriptivist´s grammar (Grammar is a set of rules that govern the langauge spoken by people. ) The linguist´s grammar (Grammar is the subconscious knowledge of the set of rules that enables speakers to use the language) The speaker´s grammar (Grammar is the intrinsic linguistic knowledge within a native speaker) 13.Describe common fallacies about language and grammar: ►One type of grammar is simpler than another. ►Changes in grammar involve deterioration in a language ►Grammars should be logical and analogical (that is, regular) ►People must be taught the grammatical rules of their language. ►Only some languages have grammar. ►Grammars differ from each other in unpredictable ways. 14.Generality: All Languages Have a Grammar 15. Equality: All Grammars Are Equal 16.Changeability: Grammars Change Over Time 17. Universality: Grammars Are Alike in Basic Ways 18.Tacitness: Grammatical Knowledge Is Subconscious 19.Linguistics is defined as the study of language systems. It is the scientific study of language. 20.Historical approach:It is the study of language change. 21.Linguistic Competence: is the unconscious knowledge speakers of a language have about the system that enables them to create and understand novel utterances. 22.Performance: is the use of it. Performance is “the actual use of language in concrete situations.” 23.I-Language (internal language): which is the intrinsic linguistic knowledge within a native speaker. 24.E-Language (external language): which is the observable language—the output from a speaker. 25.Parole ('speech') refers to the concrete instances of the use of langue, including texts which provide the ordinary research material for linguistics. 26.Langue: 27.Language: is a system of communication that is non-stereotyped and non-finite; it is unlimited in its scope. 28.Grammar: to refer to a subconscious linguistic system of a particular type. Grammar makes possible the production and comprehension of a potentially unlimited number of utterances. 29.Communication and animals: Selecting a mode of communication (speech,writing, gesture). Delivering the symbols through a medium, a physical basis for communication, light, air, or ink. Decoding of the symbols to obtain the information. 30.SIGNS: Communication relies on using something to stand for something else. Words are an obvious example of this: You do not have to have a car, a sandwich, or your cousin present in order to talk about them—the words car, sandwich, and cousin stand for them instead. This same phenomenon is found in animal communication as well. 31.The signifier: A signifier is that part of a sign that stimulates at least one sense organ of the receiver of a message.A signifier can also be a picture, a photograph, a sign language gesture, or one of the many other words for tree in different languages. 32.The signified: The signified component of the sign refers to both the real world object it represents and its conceptual content. The first of these is the real world content of the sign, its extension or referent within a system of signs such as English, avian communication, or sign language. 33.Iconic signs or icons: always bear some resemblance to their referent. A photograph is an iconic sign; so too is a stylized silhouette of a female or a male on a restroom door. 34.Some iconic tokens: a. open-mouth threat by a Japanese macaque; b. park recreation signs; c. onomatopoeic words in English. 35.An indexical sign, or index, fulfils its function by pointing out its referent, typically by being a partial or representative sample of it. Indexes are not arbitrary, since their presence has in some sense been caused by their referent. For this reason it is sometimes said that there is a causal link between an indexical sign and its referent.The track of an animal, for example, points to the existence of the animal by representing a part of it. The presence of smoke is an index of fire. 36.Symbolic signs: bear an arbitrary relationship to their referents and in this way are distinct from both icons and indexes. Human language is highly symbolic in that the vast majority of its signs bear no inherent resemblance or causal connection to their referents, as the following words show. 37.Mixed signs Signs: are not always exclusively of one type or another. Symptomatic signs, for example, may have iconic properties, as when a dog opens its mouth in a threat to bite. Symbolic signs such as traffic lights are symptomatic in that they reflect the internal state of the mechanism that causes them to change color. 38.Signals: All signs can act as signals when they trigger a specific action on the part of the receiver, as do traffic lights, words in human language such as the race starter's "Go!", or the warning calls of birds. 39.SIGN STRUCTURE: No matter what their type, signs show different kinds of structure. A basic distinction is made between graded and discrete sign structure. 40.Graded signs convey their meaning by changes in degree. A good example of a gradation in communication is voice volume. The more you want to be heard, the louder you speak along an increasing scale of loudness. There are no steps or jumps from one level to the next that can be associated with a specific change in meaning. 41.Discrete signs are distinguished from each other by categorical (stepwise) differences. There is no gradual transition from one sign to the next. The words of human language are good examples of discrete signs. 42.A VIEW OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION ►Largely iconic ►Largely symptomatic ►Little arbitrary ►Not deliberate ►Not conscious ►Not symbolic ►Stimulus bound

Chapter One: Management Today The challenges of working in the new economy recognize: 1.1 Working Today Talent Talented people- What they know, what they learn and what they can achive The source of organisational performance Develop skills and improve What is intellectual capital The combined brain power and shared knowledge of an organization's employees TO orginzations: Intellectual capital resents a strategic asset as human creativity, insight and decision making can be converted into superior performance To individuals: Intellectual capital is a personal asset, one to be nurtured and continually updated Things evolve, make sure we keep updated Intellectual capital: The package on intellect skills and capabilities that set us apart making us valable to potential employers Maintaining your talent: There is no escaping the fact that your career success will require a lot of initiative, self awareness and continuous learning Technology Tech is in our everyday lives Latest developments Smart phone, smart apparel, smart cars, smart homes We struggle to keep up with social media ana staying connected with messaging, full of email and voicemail What happenings as younger workers advance into management Flexibility Work ethic It is critical to build and maintain a high Tech IQ! What is Tech IQ: The ability to use current technologies at work and in your personal life, combined with the commitment to keep yourself updated as technology continues to evolve Intellectual capi5la is a combination of: Commitment x Competency = Intellectual capital How to make the world a better place Globalisation The worldwide interdependence of resources flows, product markets and business competition Under the influence, government leaders worry and about the competitiveness of nations just as corporate leaders worry about business competitiveness Emerging markets will power global growth over the next 20 years. By 2025 overall global consumption is forecast to reach $62 trillion, twice its 2013 level and fully half of this increase will come from the emerging world Consequence: Going to fast in uses resources, inflation, corporate greed It's cheaper to have things made in different countries (wages are low and going down) Shamrock organization 1 leaf - full time employees- standard career paths 2 leaf - “freelancers” 3 leaf - Part times without benefits (first to lose their jobs when employers face economic difficulties) The rising of emerging markets Now account for 60% of all low and medium technology manufacturing worldwide Total value add in high tech manufacturing from a low 26% in the 1970s to 48% at present China strategy to upgrade its industries and move the manufacturing value ching by prioritising 10 sectors Information technology, robotic, aerospace, maritime equipment, modern railway equipment, alternative energy vehicles, power equipment, agriculture equipment, advanced materials, biopharma and medical products Ethics A code of moral principa;s that sets standards for conduct that is “good” and “right” as well as “bad” and “wrong” Enron company huge corruption even in elections same thing happened with The Mechanism 1.2 - Organizations Organizational Purpose An orgnizations is a collection of people working together to achieve a common purpose Unique social phenomenon that enables its members to perform tasks far beyond the reach of individual accomplishment (synergy) The broad purpose of any orginzation is to provide goods or services of value to customers and clients A clear sense of purpose tied to: Quality of products and services Customer satisfaction Social responsibility Can be an important source of organisational strength and performance advantage All organisations are open systems (Systems that interact with its environment for renewal and growth) Organizations as systems All organizations are open systems that interact with their environment Continual process of obtaining resource inputs-people, information, resources and capital- and transforming them into outputs in the form of finished goods and services for customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organisation is to ask the question: How is the world different because it existed Value Creation: Organisations create value when they use resources well to produce good products and take care of their customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organization is to ask the questions: How is the world different because it existed? The 3 Ps of organizational performance Profit - is the decision economically sound? People - Does the decision treat people with respect and dignity? Planet - Is the decision good for the environment? Productivity: An overall measure of the quantity and quality of work performance with recourse utilisation taken into account Performance effectiveness: An output measure of task or goal accomplishment Performance efficiency: An input measure of the resource costs associated with goal accomplishment. Workplace changes that impact management Focus on valuing human capital Demise of “Command and control” Emphasis on teamwork Pre-eminence of technology New workforce expectations Importance of networking Concern for sustainability 1.3 Managers Importance of human resources and manger People are not ‘costs to be controlled’ High performing organizations treat people as valuable strategic assets Three takeaways 1. Give leaders broad authority 2. Encourage them to think like CEO 3. Challenge strong performers ealy with big opportunities Direct support, supervise and help activate the work efforts of others The people who managers help are the ones whose contributions represent the real work of the organisation Types of managers Line managers are responsible for work activities that directly affect organization’s output Staff managers use technical expertise to advise and support the efforts of line workers Functional managers are responsible for a single area of activity Quality of work life (QWL) An indicator of the overall quality of human experiences in the workplace QWL Indicators Respect Fair pay Safe working conditions Opportunities to learn and use new skills Room to grow and progress in a career Protection of individuals rights The organization as an upside-down pyramid A manager’s job is to support worker’s efforts The best managers are known for helping and supporting Customers at the top served by worker who are supported by managers 1.4 The management Process Managers achieve high performance for their organizations by best utilizing its humans and material resources Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the use of resources to accomplish performance goals All managers are responsible for the four functions The functions are carried on continually Characteristics of managerial work Long hours Intense pace Fragmented and varied tasks Many communication media Filled with interpersonal relationships Managerial agendas and networks Agenda setting Develops action priorities for accomplishing goals and plans Networking Process of building and maintaining positive relationships with people who can help advance agendas Social Capital Capacity to attract support and help from others Learning The change in a behaviour that results from experience Lifelong learning The process of continuously learning from daily experiences and opportunities

The challenges of working in the new economy recognize: 1.1 Working Today Talent Talented people- What they know, what they learn and what they can achive The source of organisational performance Develop skills and improve What is intellectual capital The combined brain power and shared knowledge of an organization's employees TO orginzations: Intellectual capital resents a strategic asset as human creativity, insight and decision making can be converted into superior performance To individuals: Intellectual capital is a personal asset, one to be nurtured and continually updated Things evolve, make sure we keep updated Intellectual capital: The package on intellect skills and capabilities that set us apart making us valable to potential employers Maintaining your talent: There is no escaping the fact that your career success will require a lot of initiative, self awareness and continuous learning Technology Tech is in our everyday lives Latest developments Smart phone, smart apparel, smart cars, smart homes We struggle to keep up with social media ana staying connected with messaging, full of email and voicemail What happenings as younger workers advance into management Flexibility Work ethic It is critical to build and maintain a high Tech IQ! What is Tech IQ: The ability to use current technologies at work and in your personal life, combined with the commitment to keep yourself updated as technology continues to evolve Intellectual capi5la is a combination of: Commitment x Competency = Intellectual capital How to make the world a better place Globalisation The worldwide interdependence of resources flows, product markets and business competition Under the influence, government leaders worry and about the competitiveness of nations just as corporate leaders worry about business competitiveness Emerging markets will power global growth over the next 20 years. By 2025 overall global consumption is forecast to reach $62 trillion, twice its 2013 level and fully half of this increase will come from the emerging world Consequence: Going to fast in uses resources, inflation, corporate greed It's cheaper to have things made in different countries (wages are low and going down) Shamrock organization 1 leaf - full time employees- standard career paths 2 leaf - “freelancers” 3 leaf - Part times without benefits (first to lose their jobs when employers face economic difficulties) The rising of emerging markets Now account for 60% of all low and medium technology manufacturing worldwide Total value add in high tech manufacturing from a low 26% in the 1970s to 48% at present China strategy to upgrade its industries and move the manufacturing value ching by prioritising 10 sectors Information technology, robotic, aerospace, maritime equipment, modern railway equipment, alternative energy vehicles, power equipment, agriculture equipment, advanced materials, biopharma and medical products Ethics A code of moral principa;s that sets standards for conduct that is “good” and “right” as well as “bad” and “wrong” Enron company huge corruption even in elections same thing happened with The Mechanism 1.2 - Organizations Organizational Purpose An orgnizations is a collection of people working together to achieve a common purpose Unique social phenomenon that enables its members to perform tasks far beyond the reach of individual accomplishment (synergy) The broad purpose of any orginzation is to provide goods or services of value to customers and clients A clear sense of purpose tied to: Quality of products and services Customer satisfaction Social responsibility Can be an important source of organisational strength and performance advantage All organisations are open systems (Systems that interact with its environment for renewal and growth) Organizations as systems All organizations are open systems that interact with their environment Continual process of obtaining resource inputs-people, information, resources and capital- and transforming them into outputs in the form of finished goods and services for customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organisation is to ask the question: How is the world different because it existed Michal Porter - Value Chain Value Creation: Organisations create value when they use resources well to produce good products and take care of their customers One simple way to assess the impact of any organization is to ask the questions: How is the world different because it existed? Triple Bottom Line The 3 Ps of organizational performance Profit - is the decision economically sound? People - Does the decision treat people with respect and dignity? Planet - Is the decision good for the environment? Organizational Performance Productivity: An overall measure of the quantity and quality of work performance with recourse utilisation taken into account Performance effectiveness: An output measure of task or goal accomplishment Performance efficiency: An input measure of the resource costs associated with goal accomplishment. Workplace changes that impact management Focus on valuing human capital Demise of “Command and control” Emphasis on teamwork Pre-eminence of technology New workforce expectations Importance of networking Concern for sustainability 1.3 Managers Importance of human resources and manger People are not ‘costs to be controlled’ High performing organizations treat people as valuable strategic assets Three takeaways 1. Give leaders broad authority 2. Encourage them to think like CEO 3. Challenge strong performers easily with big opportunities Direct support, supervise and help activate the work efforts of others The people who managers help are the ones whose contributions represent the real work of the organisation Levels of management Types of managers Line managers are responsible for work activities that directly affect organization’s output Staff managers use technical expertise to advise and support the efforts of line workers Functional managers are responsible for a single area of activity Quality of work life (QWL) An indicator of the overall quality of human experiences in the workplace QWL Indicators Respect Fair pay Safe working conditions Opportunities to learn and use new skills Room to grow and progress in a career Protection of individuals rights The organization as an upside-down pyramid A manager’s job is to support worker’s efforts The best managers are known for helping and supporting Customers at the top served by worker who are supported by managers 1.4 The management Process Managers achieve high performance for their organizations by best utilizing its humans and material resources Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the use of resources to accomplish performance goals All managers are responsible for the four functions The functions are carried on continually Four functions: Planning,organizing, leading and controlling Mintzberg’s 10 Managerial Roles Characteristics of managerial work Long hours Intense pace Fragmented and varied tasks Many communication media Filled with interpersonal relationships Managerial agendas and networks Agenda setting Develops action priorities for accomplishing goals and plans Networking Process of building and maintaining positive relationships with people who can help advance agendas Social Capital Capacity to attract support and help from others Learning The change in a behaviour that results from experience Lifelong learning The process of continuously learning from daily experiences and opportunities Katz’ Essential Managerial Skills

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