Concept 1 Vocabulary

Cefr 1 level vocabulary matching with definitions in hebrew to the following list of words : chance, concert, cooking, cousin, discount, factory, festival, taste, variety, adjust, create, develop, land, last, crowded, amazing, delicious, exciting, illegal, northern, traditional, unpleasant, upset. for example: variety means: a. מגוון b. דומהc. הרבה

Vocabulary List 1. Avocation Definition: A hobby or activity someone enjoys doing in addition to their main work. Example: Drawing cartoons was his favorite avocation after school. 2. Supercolossal Definition: Extremely large; even bigger than enormous. Example: They ordered a supercolossal pizza to share. 3. Repress Definition: To hold back or keep feelings or thoughts hidden. Example: She tried to repress her anger during the argument. 4. Subliminally Definition: In a way that affects the mind without someone realizing it. Example: The music subliminally made the store feel calmer. 5. Thrombosis Definition: A medical condition where a blood clot forms inside a blood vessel. Example: The doctor warned that lack of exercise can increase the risk of thrombosis. 6. Sclerosis Definition: A hardening of body tissue, especially arteries or organs. Example: The patient was diagnosed with sclerosis that affected his mobility. 7. Distortion Definition: A change that makes something appear different from what it really is. Example: The funhouse mirror caused a distortion of her reflection. 8. Philanthropy Definition: The act of giving money or help to improve the lives of others. Example: His philanthropy helped build a new library for the town. 9. Prevarications Definition: Lies or evasive statements used to avoid telling the truth. Example: The teacher grew tired of the student’s prevarications about missing homework. 10. Syndrome Definition: A group of symptoms or behaviors that occur together. Example: The doctor studied the syndrome to better understand the illness. 11. Schizophrenic Definition: Relating to a mental disorder where a person may have difficulty distinguishing reality from imagination. Example: The character in the story showed schizophrenic behavior. 12. Subsidize Definition: To support financially, usually with money from the government or an organization. Example: The city decided to subsidize public transportation. 13. Phenomenal Definition: Very remarkable or impressive. Example: The athlete gave a phenomenal performance in the race. 14. Demented Definition: Showing disturbed or irrational behavior. Example: The villain in the movie had a demented laugh. 15. Patron Definition: A person who supports or regularly visits a business, artist, or organization. Example: She was a loyal patron of the local bookstore. 16. Cultural Lag Definition: When ideas and beliefs take longer to change than technology or society. Example: Cultural lag can make it hard for laws to keep up with new technology. 17. Omens Definition: Signs believed to predict something that will happen in the future. Example: Some people think black cats are omens of bad luck. 18. Antagonistic Definition: Showing hostility or opposition. Example: The rival teams were antagonistic toward each other. 19. Voluptuous Definition: Curvy and attractive in a full, rich way. Example: The sculpture showed a voluptuous figure. 20. Oscilloscope Definition: A device used to view and measure electrical signals. Example: The scientist used an oscilloscope to study the sound waves. 21. Putrid Definition: Rotting and giving off a very bad smell. Example: The garbage smelled putrid after sitting in the sun. 22. Fixated Definition: Focused or obsessed with something. Example: He became fixated on winning the competition. 23. Mundane Definition: Ordinary, dull, or routine. Example: She was tired of the mundane chores she had to do every day. 24. Ghouls Definition: Evil or ghost-like creatures that feed on the dead in stories or legends. Example: The haunted house story was filled with ghouls and monsters. 25. Maladjusted Definition: Unable to cope well with the demands of life or society. Example: The counselor helped the maladjusted student deal with stress. 26. Incongruous Definition: Not fitting in; out of place. Example: The fancy chandelier looked incongruous in the small cabin. 27. Tribute Definition: Something done or given to show respect or admiration. Example: The concert was a tribute to the famous musician. 28. Audibly Definition: In a way that can be heard clearly. Example: He audibly sighed when the test ended. 29. Proficiency Definition: Skill or competence in doing something. Example: Her proficiency in math helped her tutor other students.

Alright, Isti — here’s a longer and more detailed English version of the Isaac Newton text, still written at a level that’s accessible for Grade 4 students, but rich enough in information to meet PISA literacy expectations and EF A2-level vocabulary. I’ve kept sentences short, clear, and with explanations for new concepts so it’s easier for young learners to follow, while still including both famous facts and lesser-known stories. ⸻ Isaac Newton: The Man Who Changed the Way We See the World A Boy from a Small Village Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe, a small village in England. His life was not easy. His father died before he was born. When he was just a few months old, his mother remarried and left him to live with his grandmother. Isaac missed his parents, but he kept himself busy by making things and exploring the world around him. As a child, Isaac liked to build models and machines. He made a small windmill that could turn with the wind. He built a water clock that told the time by dripping water into a container. He even made a sundial — a clock that tells the time by using the shadow of the sun. 💡 Did you know? The sundial marks that Isaac carved as a boy can still be seen today on the wall of his old house. ⸻ School and Curiosity When Newton first went to school, he was not the top student. At first, he did not pay much attention in class. But one day, another boy teased him for not being smart. Newton decided to study hard to prove him wrong. Soon, he became the best in his class. Isaac loved asking questions. He wanted to know how and why things happened. He enjoyed watching the stars at night and thinking about how the world worked. ⸻ The Falling Apple and Gravity One of the most famous stories about Newton is the falling apple. One afternoon, Isaac sat in his mother’s garden and saw an apple drop from a tree. This made him think: “Why does the apple fall straight down? Why doesn’t it fly up into the sky?” From this question, Newton began to think about gravity — an invisible force that pulls objects toward each other. Gravity is what keeps our feet on the ground. It’s also what keeps the Moon moving around the Earth and the planets moving around the Sun. 💡 Fun fact: The apple did not hit Newton’s head. That’s just a story people made up later to make the tale more exciting. ⸻ Newton’s Three Laws of Motion Newton studied movement and wrote three important rules: 1. Objects stay still or keep moving unless something makes them change. • Example: A ball will not roll unless you push it. 2. The bigger the push, the bigger the movement. • Example: If you kick a ball harder, it will go faster and farther. 3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. • Example: When you jump off a boat, the boat moves backward as you move forward. These three laws are still used today to understand how cars, rockets, and even roller coasters work. ⸻ Discoveries in Light and Color Newton also studied light. He found that white light is not just one color — it is made of many colors. He used a glass prism to split sunlight into a rainbow. This helped scientists understand how colors work. ⸻ Inventions and New Ideas Newton made a special telescope that used mirrors instead of lenses. This type of telescope made images of planets and stars much clearer. It is still called the Newtonian telescope today. He also worked in mathematics and helped create a new type of math called calculus, which is used to study changes and movement. ⸻ Strange Experiments Newton was so curious that he sometimes tested ideas on himself. Once, he put a thin needle, called a bodkin, beside his eye to see how it would change his vision. It was very dangerous, but luckily he did not go blind. 💡 Did you know? Newton also studied alchemy — an old kind of science where people tried to turn metal into gold. He never succeeded, but it showed how wide his interests were. ⸻ Later Life and Work At the age of 27, Newton became a professor at Cambridge University. He later worked for the Royal Mint, making sure coins were made safely and stopping people from making fake money. He was very strict, and some criminals were sent to prison because of his work. Newton never married. He spent most of his life reading, writing, and doing experiments. ⸻ The End of His Life Isaac Newton died in 1727 at the age of 84. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, a famous place in London where great people of Britain are honored. His work changed the world forever. Even today, scientists, engineers, and students still use Newton’s laws and ideas. 💬 Newton once said: “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” This means we can make new discoveries by learning from the work of others who came before us. give 10 questions to each passage with PISA literacy standard for kid 10 years, 1. Nikola Tesla: The Man Who Dreamed of Lightning Born: July 10, 1856 Died: January 7, 1943 When Nikola Tesla was a boy in Croatia, he saw a flash of lightning and asked his mother, “Can we catch the light?” That question never left him. As he grew older, Tesla became a brilliant inventor, especially fascinated by electricity. He believed in a future where energy could be sent wirelessly through the air—like music through the radio! Tesla invented the alternating current (AC) system, which became the foundation of modern electricity. At the time, Thomas Edison promoted direct current (DC), and the two men had a fierce competition. Many laughed at Tesla's bold ideas, but he never gave up. He dreamed of wireless communication, flying machines, and even free energy for everyone. Though he died alone and poor, today the world honors his vision. Think About It: Why do you think people didn’t believe Tesla at first? What can we learn from Tesla’s courage to dream big? 2. Charles Darwin: The Man Who Studied the World’s Weirdest Creatures Born: February 12, 1809 Died: April 19, 1882 When young Charles Darwin got on a ship called HMS Beagle, he didn’t know he would change science forever. He sailed around the world for five years, collecting plants, animals, and fossils. On the Galápagos Islands, he noticed something curious: finches had different beaks depending on their island. Why? Darwin’s observations led him to write the theory of evolution by natural selection. It explained how animals adapt and survive. But his ideas shocked many people because they seemed to challenge religious beliefs. Despite the controversy, Darwin continued his work. His book On the Origin of Species changed how we see life on Earth. Think About It: Should scientists share their ideas even if they go against what others believe? How did traveling help Darwin make new discoveries? 3. Marie Curie: The Woman Who Glowed in the Dark Born: November 7, 1867 Died: July 4, 1934 Marie Curie was born in Poland at a time when girls were not allowed to study science. But that didn’t stop her. She moved to France, worked day and night, and discovered radioactivity, a powerful energy hidden inside atoms. She and her husband, Pierre Curie, found two new elements: polonium and radium. She became the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, and the only person to win in two different sciences: physics and chemistry. Even when Pierre died in an accident, Marie continued their work. Her discoveries helped doctors treat cancer—but working with radioactive materials also harmed her health. She died from radiation exposure, but her legacy lives on. Think About It: What challenges did Marie Curie face as a woman in science? Why is it important to balance discovery with safety? 4. Galileo Galilei: The Star Watcher Who Defied the Church Born: February 15, 1564 Died: January 8, 1642 Galileo loved looking at the stars. He built one of the first powerful telescopes and made stunning discoveries: mountains on the Moon, moons around Jupiter, and that the Earth orbits the Sun—not the other way around. This idea, called heliocentrism, went against the teachings of the Church. He was put on trial and forced to say he was wrong. But he wasn’t. He spent his last years under house arrest, quietly writing. Today, Galileo is called the father of modern science for daring to question what others blindly believed. Think About It: Why do you think Galileo was punished for telling the truth? Should science always follow evidence, even if it goes against powerful beliefs? 5. Isaac Newton: The Man Who Asked “Why?” When an Apple Fell Born: January 4, 1643 Died: March 31, 1727 One day, an apple fell from a tree, and Isaac Newton began to wonder: Why did it fall down, not sideways or up? This simple question led to his theory of gravity. Newton also invented calculus, described the laws of motion, and changed physics forever. But Newton wasn’t just a genius—he was curious, quiet, and often worked alone. He believed everything in nature followed rules, and it was our job to discover them. Thanks to him, we understand how planets move, how rockets launch, and why you fall when you trip. Think About It: How did Newton’s curiosity lead to great discoveries? Do you think working alone helped or hurt Newton? 6. Ada Lovelace: The First Computer Programmer Before Computers Existed Born: December 10, 1815 Died: November 27, 1852 Ada Lovelace was the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, but she didn’t love poetry—she loved numbers! At a time when girls were expected to sew, Ada studied mathematics. She met Charles Babbage, who designed an early computer called the Analytical Engine. Ada imagined the machine could do more than just math—it could create music, art, and even write! She wrote what is now considered the first computer program, long before real computers were built. Think About It: How did Ada imagine something that didn’t exist yet? Why do we call her a pioneer in technology? 7. Albert Einstein: The Man Who Brought Time and Space Together Born: March 14, 1879 Died: April 18, 1955 Albert Einstein wasn’t always a good student. In fact, his teachers thought he was slow. But Einstein thought deeply. He asked big questions like, “What if you could ride a beam of light?” His theories of relativity changed how we see space, time, and gravity. He also warned the world about the dangers of nuclear weapons, even though his ideas helped create them. Einstein believed science should help people, not harm them. With his messy hair, kind smile, and brilliant mind, he remains a symbol of genius. Think About It: Can someone be bad in school but still be brilliant? Should scientists be responsible for how their inventions are used? 8. Pythagoras: The Musician Who Loved Math Born: Around 570 BC Died: Around 495 BC Long ago in ancient Greece, Pythagoras believed the universe followed numbers. He discovered the Pythagorean Theorem, a rule about triangles that helps us build houses, design computers, and navigate space. He also believed that music had math inside it—that certain notes made perfect harmony because of mathematical ratios. Pythagoras started a secret school and taught his students to search for truth through numbers, shapes, and sound. Think About It: Why do you think Pythagoras saw math in everything? How does music relate to math? 9. Rosalind Franklin: The Woman Behind the DNA Discovery Born: July 25, 1920 Died: April 16, 1958 Rosalind Franklin loved looking closely at things. She used a special machine called X-ray crystallography to photograph molecules. One of her greatest photos, called Photo 51, showed the shape of DNA, the molecule that carries life’s instructions. But her work was taken without credit. Two men, Watson and Crick, used her photo to build their famous model of DNA and won the Nobel Prize. Rosalind died young and never knew how important her work became. Think About It: Why is it important to give credit in science? What can we learn from Rosalind’s quiet strength? 10. Carl Linnaeus: The Man Who Gave Names to Everything Born: May 23, 1707 Died: January 10, 1778 Have you ever wondered why a tiger is called Panthera tigris? That’s thanks to Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish scientist who created a way to name and organize every living thing. His system is still used today in biology. Linnaeus loved nature and spent his life collecting plants, animals, and even rocks. He believed that by organizing life, we could better understand it. Thanks to him, we now have a global “dictionary of nature.” Think About It: Why is it important to name and organize living things? How does order help us understand the world?

Match the word to its synonym level B1 CEFR. Use the vocabulary exactly adverb precisely except that aside from exist verb to be real existing adjective real, current Example: Flying cars are not practical with existing technology. existence noun reality Example: The existence of black holes has been confirmed by indirect observation. extraordinary adjective unusual feature noun important part of something Example: The Ramon Crater is a unique feature of the Negev Desert. feedback noun reaction figure noun shape Example: I can’t tell if that figure in the shadows is a man or a woman. figure out verb understand Example: I just can’t figure out how the magician did that amazing trick. financial adjective related to money Example: Her family is having financial problems so they can’t travel overseas this year. finance verb pay for Example: If I can’t get a loan from the bank, I won’t be able to finance a new apartment. finance noun money Example: An expert in finance predicts a global recession. finding/findings noun discoveries; results of a study Example: According to the findings of the police investigation, this is the gun which fired the fatal bullet. flexibility noun willingness to change flexible adjective adjusts easily Example: I’d prefer to meet on Monday morning but I can be flexible depending upon your schedule. flood noun a lot of water flood verb to cover with too much water flu noun type of sickness focus on/upon verb pay attention to Example: You should focus on your schoolwork if you want to improve your grades. focus noun attention People with attention deficit disorder lose focus easily. frequency noun how often frequent adjective very often Example: Hanah is a frequent customer and everyone at the store knows her. fresh adjective new Example: We need some fresh ideas if we’re going to solve this problem. frighten verb scare from preposition position, starting point gain verb make an increase, profit, earn Example: I have nothing to gain by choosing sides so I shall remain neutral. gain noun profit, amount earned generate verb create, make Example: Chat GPT can generate text written in any style you choose. guidance noun help, advice hopeful adjective optimistic, having a positive outlook Example: The farmers are hopeful that we will have rain this winter. hopefully adjective with luck ideal adjective best, most preferable Example: Nuclear power may not be an ideal solution to global warming, but it’s certainly worth considering. illness noun sickness, disease illustrate verb draw pictures illustration noun picture, image Example: Children’s storybooks have colorful illustrations. image noun picture, especially on film or television Example: The mother of the pop singer cried when she first saw her daughter’s image on television. in preposition within, inside, into in terms of regarding Example: That company makes a great product but they’re lacking in terms of customer service. in actual fact in truth Example: The mayor says the city is a safe place to live, but in actual fact the violent crime rate is very high. in connection with about Example: Police arrested four men in connection with the robbery. in that case if that is true Example: Billy Bob: “Traffic could be heavy tomorrow.” Peggy Sue: “In that case, we better leave early.” in the meantime while, during Example: The new computers won’t arrive until next week, but we can keep using the old ones in the meantime. initial adjective first Example: Her initial reaction to that song was negative, but over time she’s come to like it. initially adverb at first instruction noun teaching, order Example: Most new electronic devices come with a set of instructions. intelligence noun smartness Example: Since you have a degree from a good university, I assume you have sufficient intelligence to understand this problem. intelligent adjective smart Example: Joe isn’t very intelligent, but he is a kind person with a warm heart. interest noun attraction Example: Yossi has little interest in politics, whereas his wife goes to all the protests and demonstrations. interest verb to attract Example: Sports don’t really interest me, but my brother is a big basketball fan. introduce verb to show something new Example: Today in class I will introduce the basic concepts of literary analysis. invest verb to put money into something in order to earn money Example: Joe invested in cryptocurrency and lost a lot of money. investor noun one who puts money into something in order to earn money Example: Venture capitalists are investors who put money into risky start-up businesses. investment noun putting money into something in order to earn money Example: Buying real estate in Israel is a very safe investment because the value never goes down. investigate verb research, study Example: The police collected evidence to investigate the murder. investigation noun study Example: The police don’t have a suspect for the murder as the investigation isn’t finished yet. investigator noun detective Example: Detective Schmendrick is the lead investigator for the murder case. just about almost Example: I’m just about done here so I’ll be there shortly. keep on doing verb continue Example: You’re crazy if you keep on doing the same thing and expect different results. kind of type of Example: What kind of dog is that, a poodle? knowledge noun awareness Example: John failed the test due to lack of knowledge of the material. lack verb not having, missing Example: John failed the test due to lack of knowledge of the material. landscape noun the view of the land likely adjective, adverb probably Example: When we learn from our mistakes, we’re not likely to forget. limited adjective restricted Example: We should go to the store today because the sale is for a limited time only. limitation noun restriction little adjective small, not a lot Example: She always tells the truth. I have little reason to doubt her. look at verb see Example: People used to read newspapers on the train. Nowadays they just look at their phones. low adverb to a small amount or level Example: I have to charge my phone because the battery is running low. material noun documents, information Example: We have a lot of material to cover before the end of the semester. meaning noun significance mean verb to have significance or purpose means noun form of, by the use of Example: They communicate by means of radio. measure noun step Example: The teacher took measures to prevent cheating during the test mention verb to say, point out Example: The coach said the team played very well today but didn’t mention any player specifically. miss verb (1) fail to catch (2) wishing to see somebody Examples: (1) The football player kicked the ball but missed the goal. (2) Wow, it’s good to see you! I’ve missed you so much! misunderstand verb understand incorrectly Example: I’m afraid I misunderstood the instructions. Could you repeat them please? more or less approximately, somewhat, to a varying degree Example: This is more or less a religious neighborhood, though there are a few secular families. must modal verb have to naturally adverb as expected, normally nature noun (1) open air (2) character Examples: (1) We like to go hiking in nature reserves. (2) Pit bulls are aggressive by nature.

Influence of China and India China ChinaChina under the Han emperor Wudi (c. 100 bce) and (inset) at the end of the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn) Period (c. 500 bce). Between approximately 150 bce and 150 ce, most of Southeast Asia was first influenced by the more mature cultures of its neighbours to the north and west. Thus began a process that lasted for the better part of a millennium and fundamentally changed Southeast Asia. In some ways the circumstances were very different. China, concerned about increasingly powerful chiefdoms in Vietnam disturbing its trade, encroached into the region and by the end of the 1st century bce had incorporated it as a remote province of the Han empire. For generations, the Vietnamese opposed Chinese rule, but they were unable to gain their independence until 939 ce. From India, however, there is no evidence of conquests, colonization, or even extensive migration. Indians came to Southeast Asia, but they did not come to rule, and no Indian power appears to have pursued an interest in controlling a Southeast Asian power from afar, a factor that may help to explain why only the Vietnamese accepted the Chinese model. Yet, in other ways the processes of Indianization and Sinicization were remarkably similar. Southeast Asia already was socially and culturally diverse, making accommodation easy. Furthermore, indigenous peoples shaped the adaption and adoption of outside influences and, indeed, seem to have sought out concepts and practices that enhanced rather than redirected changes already underway in their own societies. They also rejected some components: for example, some of the vocabulary and general theories related to the Indian notions of social hierarchy were borrowed but much of the specific practices were not, and neither Indian nor Chinese views of women as socially and legally inferior were accepted. In the later stages of the assimilation process—particularly in the Indianized areas—local syncretism often produced exuberant variations, which, despite familiar appearances, were expressions of local genius rather than just inspired borrowings. Get Unlimited Access Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more. Sculptures at Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia. 1 of 2 Sculptures at Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia. Pagan, Myanmar 2 of 2 Pagan, MyanmarRuins of ancient Buddhist shrines and pagodas, Pagan, Myanmar. Still, Chinese and Indian influences were anything but superficial. They provided writing systems and literature, systems of statecraft, and concepts of social hierarchy and religious belief, all of which were both of intrinsic interest and pragmatic significance to Southeast Asians of the day. For elites seeking to gain and retain control over larger and more complex populations, the applications of these ideas were obvious, but it would also seem that the sheer beauty and symbolic power of Hindu and Buddhist arts tapped a responsive vein in the Southeast Asian soul. The result was an imposing array of architectural and other cultural wonders, at first very much in the Indian image and hewing close to current styles and later in more original, indigenous interpretations. The seriousness and profundity with which all this activity was undertaken is unmistakable. By the 7th century ce, Palembang in southern Sumatra was being visited by Chinese and other Buddhist devotees from throughout Asia, who came to study doctrine and to copy manuscripts in institutions that rivaled in importance those in India itself. Later, beginning in the 8th century, temple and court complexes of surpassing grandeur and beauty were constructed in central Java, Myanmar, and Cambodia; the Borobudur of the Śailendra dynasty in Java, the myriad temples of the Burman dynastic capital of Pagan, and the monuments constructed at Angkor during the Khmer empire in Cambodia rank without question among the glories of the ancient world.

1.3.2 Multilingüismo individual: ¿somos todos multilingües? ¿Qué quiere decir ser bilingüe o ser multilingüe? Podríamos definir el bilingüismo o multilingüismo individual como la capacidad de una persona de hablar dos o más lenguas. Pero esta definición tiene varias carencias. Tradicionalmente, se pensaba que solo las personas que alcanzaban un dominio similar al de un nativo en cada una de las lenguas que hablaban podían considerarse «bilingües de verdad» o «multilingües de verdad». Pero, ¿qué ocurre con las personas que aprenden una lengua extranjera sin dominarla igual que su lengua materna? ¿Y las personas que son capaces de entender una lengua, tal vez la que se habla en su casa, pero no de hablarla con fluidez? ¿Y qué pasa con las personas que pueden hablar un idioma bastante bien, pero no saben escribir en ese idioma? ¿Y los que pueden leer y entender un texto en una lengua extranjera, pero no pueden comunicarse activamente en ella? Hoy sabemos que, aunque el dominio de dos (o más) lenguas como el de un nativo se pueda dar, en realidad es algo muy poco frecuente, ya que la inmensa mayoría de personas bilingües y multilingües no tienen el mismo grado de competencia en todas sus lenguas. De hecho, es muy común tener una lengua dominante o de preferencia, una lengua en la que una persona se desenvuelve con mayor fluidez o que prefiere en determinados ámbitos o situaciones. Imagínate a un niño que vive en el Reino Unido y habla ruso en casa con su familia e inglés en la escuela. Evidentemente, podrá hablar con más fluidez sobre algunos temas en ruso y sobre otros en inglés. ¿Significa eso que no es bilingüe? En absoluto, lo veremos enseguida. También es muy común, sobre todo entre las personas que han aprendido una segunda (o tercera) lengua más tarde, que una de las dos lenguas interfiera con la otra, algo que puede reflejarse en su acento, en ciertas estructuras gramaticales, en el vocabulario, etc. Imaginemos a un profesor universitario francés que lleva veinte años viviendo y trabajando en Inglaterra. Puede comunicarse con soltura en inglés tanto en situaciones formales como informales y ha publicado libros tanto en inglés como en francés. Sin embargo, sigue hablando en inglés con acento francés y, después de tantos años en Inglaterra, a veces le cuesta encontrar las palabras adecuadas cuando habla en francés. ¿Y qué pasa con esta persona? ¿La considerarías bilingüe? Continuo bilingüe. Las mayúsculas y el tamaño de letra más grande indican un mayor dominio de la lengua A o B. (A partir de Valdés 2014). Monolingüe lengua A Monolingüe lengua B A Ab Ab Ab Ab aB Ba Ba Ba Ba Ba B debe ser bonito ser bilingue 22 INCLUSIÓN, DIVERSIDAD Y COMUNICACIÓN ENTRE CULTURAS En la actualidad, muchos lingüistas consideran que el bilingüismo (o el multilingüismo) no es un estado que pueda alcanzarse con el tiempo, sino más bien un continuo, es decir, una progresión gradual entre dos extremos opuestos. En un extremo está el monolingüismo en la lengua A, y en el otro el monolingüismo en la lengua B. Cualquier individuo con competencias lingüísticas en ambas lenguas podría situarse entre esos dos polos. Dependiendo de su competencia y fluidez en cada lengua, se situaría más cerca de un extremo u otro del continuo. Por ejemplo, una persona con un gran dominio de una de las lenguas, pero con un dominio limitado de la otra, podría situarse en el polo Ab, mientras que una persona con un dominio de ambas lenguas similar al de un nativo se situaría en el medio, en el polo aB. La idea de un continuo bilingüe nos permite ver el bilingüismo como un proceso y tiene en cuenta el hecho de que el dominio de cualquiera de las dos lenguas puede cambiar con el tiempo. Es posible ganar competencias en una lengua, pero también perderlas. Según esta concepción más amplia del bilingüismo, incluso los estudiantes que se inician en una lengua extranjera podrían considerarse bilingües, aunque, por supuesto, al principio estarían bastante cerca de uno de los extremos monolingües del continuo. En cualquier caso, las personas bilingües y plurilingües se encuentran a menudo con tópicos o conceptos erróneos sobre lo que supone hablar y «vivir» en dos o más idiomas. Uno de los prejuicios más problemáticos es que la exposición a varias lenguas es perjudicial para el desarrollo del lenguaje en los menores. Antes se creía que los menores criados de forma bilingüe o multilingüe nunca lograrían aprender bien ninguna de las lenguas en cuestión. Por ello, docentes y pediatras desaconsejaban a los padres criar a sus hijos de forma bilingüe o multilingüe, y a menudo se les animaba a hablar con ellos en la lengua mayoritaria de su sociedad, aunque ellos mismos no dominaran esa lengua. Presionar a los familiares para que no hablen en su lengua materna con sus hijos plantea una serie SABÍAS QUE… el Día Internacional de la Lengua Materna se celebra el 21 de febrero? Fue declarado por la UNESCO en 1999 para sensibilizar sobre la diversidad lingüística y cultural y promover el multilingüismo. de problemas. Por ejemplo, los padres que hablan la lengua mayoritaria de su nueva sociedad como una lengua extranjera podrían transmitir a sus hijos patrones de pronunciación y gramática incorrectos. También se ha observado que los padres que se obligan a hablar a sus hijos en una lengua extranjera en la que no se sienten cómodos pueden comunicarse menos con ellos y ser incapaces de expresar sentimientos como la cercanía y el afecto de la forma en que lo harían en su lengua materna. Además, al no transmitir una lengua de herencia, los padres rompen el vínculo de sus hijos con los familiares que viven en el extranjero, puesto que los niños no podrán comunicarse con ellos por su cuenta. Por último, este enfoque dificulta la transmisión de las tradiciones y los valores culturales. Estas cuestiones suelen provocar problemas en la dinámica familiar que pueden ser difíciles de resolver más adelante. ¿De dónde viene la idea de la «confusión lingüística»? Uno de los principales motivos que llevan a pensar que la exposición a más de una lengua confunde a los niños es la observación de que los niños y niñas pequeños suelen combinar palabras de las distintas lenguas que hablan en una misma frase. Este fenómeno se denomina alternancia de código y es una etapa típica del desarrollo del lenguaje en los niños pequeños que se crían de forma bilingüe o multilingüe. 21/2 LENGUAS EN LA VIDA COTIDIANA 23 Sin embargo, la alternancia de código puede observarse en bilingües de cualquier edad cuando hablan con otros bilingües. Esto no significa que se confundan o sean incapaces de comunicarse correctamente en una sola lengua; es algo normal en el comportamiento lingüístico bilingüe. Llegados a este punto, es importante introducir el concepto «repertorio lingüístico». Un repertorio lingüístico incluye los recursos comunicativos de los que dispone un individuo o una comunidad de habla, es decir, las variedades lingüísticas escritas y habladas puede utilizar o que están presentes en una comunidad de hablantes. El repertorio lingüístico de las comunidades de hablantes monolingües suele estar formado por diferentes registros, estilos, dialectos, acentos, jergas y modismos. En las comunidades de habla bilingüe o multilingüe (por ejemplo, en entornos de migración o en países lingüísticamente diversos, como la India), el repertorio lingüístico no incluye solo diferentes variedades regionales, sociales y/o estilísticas en cada lengua por separado, sino también combinaciones de las diferentes lenguas habladas. Los bilingües pueden optar por cambiar y mezclar códigos en determinadas situaciones comunicativas, al igual que un hablante monolingüe puede utilizar un registro u otro en función del contexto y de con quién esté hablando. Sobre esta base, se podría incluso decir que, en sentido muy amplio, todos somos multilingües, ya que todos, monolingües y bilingües, debemos aprender a hacer malabarismos con las distintas variedades lingüísticas de nuestras sociedades. Anima a tus alumnos a realizar la actividad C para reflexionar sobre la importancia que tienen para ellos las diferentes lenguas, dialectos, acentos y ¿QUÉ PUEDO TRANSMITIR A MI ALUMNADO? · El bilingüismo o el multilingüismo no es un estado que pueda lograrse en un momento dado, sino un proceso en el que la competencia lingüística puede cambiar con el tiempo. · La mayoría de las personas bilingües y multilingües no tienen el mismo dominio de sus diferentes lenguas, y eso es algo completamente normal. · Según una concepción más amplia del bilingüismo y el multilingüismo, incluso los principiantes que aprenden una lengua extranjera podrían considerarse bilingües. · No hay que desalentar a los padres a hablar en su lengua materna con sus hijos e hijas, ya que es a través de ella como mejor pueden comunicarse, expresar sentimientos como la cercanía y el afecto, y transmitir su cultura y sus valores a la siguiente generación. En contextos de migración, los menores que dominan su lengua materna pueden mantener el contacto con los familiares que viven en el extranjero. · Las personas monolingües disponen de diferentes registros, estilos, dialectos, acentos, jergas y modismos. Las personas bilingües también pueden hacer uso de todos ellos, pero además es posible que mezclen y cambien de idioma cuando hablan con otros bilingües. Hacerlo es una parte natural y normal del comportamiento lingüístico de los bilingües y no significa que se confundan o sean incapaces de comunicarse correctamente en una sola lengua. 24 INCLUSIÓN, DIVERSIDAD Y COMUNICACIÓN ENTRE CULTURAS registros. Les resultará divertido comparar los resultados entre amigos y compañeros de clase. En la actividad D, los alumnos tendrán la oportunidad de hablar sobre la alternancia de código, de descubrir el significado de un texto escrito en muchas lenguas diferentes e incluso de crear su propio texto multilingüe. 1.4 CONCLUSIONES En este capítulo hemos presentado diferentes aspectos relacionados con las lenguas en el mundo y en nuestra vida cotidiana. Hemos explicado que las lenguas no son objetos estáticos, sino organismos vivos que interactúan y se relacionan entre sí y están en constante evolución. Las lenguas no solo transmiten mensajes, sino también los valores culturales y sociales de las personas que las hablan e incluso una forma de ver o entender el mundo. A pesar de lo que nos puedan hacer creer, el multilingüismo no es la excepción en el mundo, sino la norma. Por tanto, nuestra diversidad lingüística puede considerarse una forma más de biodiversidad, que también hay que proteger. En el capítulo 2 nos centraremos en los aspectos culturales de nuestras sociedades multiculturales y multilingües.

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