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Discusión 30.03
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HEALTH EDUCATION 3. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: Students should able to know about_______ 1. definition of health education 2. aims of health education 3. objectives of health education 4. principles of health education 5. scope of health education 6. planning of health education 7. steps in planning health education 8. levels of health education 9. doctors s responsibility 4. INTRODUCTION: Health education is a term frequently used by health care professional. its aims at individual and community health. Health education is the translation of what is known about health into desirable individual and community behaviour pattern by means of an education process. Definition: “A process aimed at encouraging people to want to be healthy , to know how to stay healthy, to do what they can individually and collectively to maintain health And seek help when needed”. OBJECTIVES - To inform people or disseminate scientific knowledge about prevention of disease and promotion of health - To motivate people to change their habits and lifestyle that are harmful to their health also motivate people to adopt habits and ways of living conducive to healthy living. - To guide the people who need help to adapt and maintain healthy practices and lifestyle by showing proper community resources. --- PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION - Credibility Of Message: It is the degree to which the message to be communicated is perceived as trustworthy by the receiver. - Creating interest among participants: It is a psychological principle that people are unlikely to listen to things that are not of their interest. If a health programme is based on the felt needs, people will participate in the programme willingly. - Motivating the participants: Motivation is like a petrol engine that drives the mental engine. It is the fundamental desire in every person to learn. Motivation is contagious; one motivated person may spread motivation throughout the group. 13. - Enhance comprehension of content: It means health education should be based on the level of understanding, education and literacy of people at whom the teaching is directed. Teaching should be within the mental capacity of the audience. - Ensure reinforcement: Repetition at intervals is necessary to promote learning. Without reinforcement and feedback, students can go back to the pre-awareness stage. - Encourage active participation: Health education should aim at encouraging people to work actively with health workers and others in identifying their own health problems and also in developing solutions. 14. - Learning by doing: Teaching is effective when individuals actively participate in health education. Learning becomes active and quicker if the individuals are made active physically as well as psychologically. - Known to unknown: The people in a community know something and the health educator enlarges this knowledge. If the health educator links new knowledge with the old knowledge, it can enhance learning. - Maintaining good human relations: Sharing of information, ideas and feelings happens most easily between people who have a good relationship. 15. - Setting an example: The health educators should set a good example in the topic they are dealing with as it fosters better understanding. - Regular feedback: Feedback is one of the key concepts of the system approach. The health educator can modify the elements of the system in light of the feedback from his audience. For effective communication, feedback is of paramount importance - Efficient leadership: Leaders are agents of change and they can be made use of in health education work. Psychologists have shown and established that we learn best from people we respect and regard. 16. The essential attributes of a leader are as follows - Understands the needs of the community. - Provides proper guidance. - Takes initiative. - Is receptive to the views and suggestions of people. - Identifies himself with the community. Is selfless, honest, impartial, considerate and sincere. - Is easily accessible to people. 17. SCOPE OF HEALTH EDUCATION 1. Nutrition 2. Hygiene 3. Family health 4. Disease prevention and cantrol 5. Psychological health 6. Prevention of accident 7. Use of health services 8. Human biology 19. - Nutrition: The aim of nutrition education is to guide people to choose optimum and balanced diets, remove prejudices and promote good dietary habits. nutrition education is a major intervention for the prevention of malnutrition, promotion of health and improving the quality of life. 20. - Hygiene: This has two aspects: personal and environmental. Personal: The aim of personal hygiene is to promote standards of personal cleanliness . Environmental: Has two aspects: Domestic and community. All environmental sanitation programmes should include health education 21. - Family health: The family is the first defence as well as the chief reliance for the well-being of its members. One of the main tasks of health education is to promote family self-reliance, especially regarding the family's responsibilities in child bearing, child rearing, self-care and in influencing their children to adopt a healthy lifestyle. 22. - Disease prevention and control: Drugs alone will not solve health problems. Without health education, a person may fall sick again and again from the same disease. Educating the people about the prevention and control of locally endemic diseases is the first of the eight essential activities in primary health care. 23. - Psychological health: Psychological health problem can occur everywhere. There is a tendency to an increase in the prevalence of psychological diseases when there is a change in society from agriculture to an industrial economy and when people move from the warm intimacy of a village. 24. - Prevention of accidents: Accidents are a feature of the complexity of modern life. Accidents can occur in home, road and place of work. The predominant factor in accidents is carelessness that can be tackled by health education. 25. - Use of health services: Many people, particularly in rural areas, do not know what health services are available and many more do not know. There is a communication gap between the public and state health administration in the form of feedback for further improvement of health services. One of the declared aims of health education is to inform people about the health services available in their community. 26. PLANNING FOR HEALTH EDUCATION planning: is the process of making thoughtful and systemic decision about what needs to be done , how it has to be done, by whom And with what sources. 27. Principles of planning health education 1) Focus on actual current needs and context of community: It is important that plans are made with the needs and context of the community in mind. Health education should try to understand what is currently happening in the community one works in. 2) Plan for basic needs and interest of the community: Consider the basic needs and interests of the community. If the local needs and interests are not kept under consideration, the plans may not be effective. 28. 3) Planning with actual beneficiaries of health education: Plan with the people involved in the implementation of an activity. If people are included in planning, they will be more likely to participate and the plan will be more likely to succeed. 4) Identify and use all relevant community resources: It is essential that the health educator identify all the relevant resources that are locally available which could be used for benefit of people receiving the health education. 29. 5) Follow principle of flexibility: Planning should be flexible, not rigid. One should be able to modify the plans when necessary. For example, you would have to change your priorities if a new problem needing an urgent response arose. 6) A realistic plan not hypothetical: The planned activity should be achievable and take into consideration the financial, personal resources available and time constraints. Planning must be realistic; do not plan unachievable activities. 30. Steps in planning health education Planning is a continuous process. It does not just happen at the start of project . Health education must be well planned to actually improve and promote individual, family and community health 31. - Needs assessment: Conducting needs assessment is the first and probably the most important step in any successful planning process. assessment is the process of identifying and understanding the health problems of the community and their possible causes. - Identify priorities: After identifying the needs and resources of the community, the next is to identify their priorities because each community may have several problems but the urgent have to be given top priority in health education. For example: goitre 32. - Set the goals and objectives: In planning the process of health education, setting goals and objectives is the third and most essential step because these goals and objectives serve as consciously thought baseline parameters to be achieved during health education. - Develop strategies: Prior to the implementation of the health education intervention one must plan, develop and evaluate the several alternative strategies to achieve the set goals and objectives of health education because each problem and target community is quite unique. 33. - Implementation: This is the core phase of the health education process which includes carrying out the planned strategies so that the set goals and objectives of health education may be achieved. - Monitor and evaluation: This is the final step of the planning process of health education where continuous monitoring as well as end evaluation is carried out to ensure the degree to which stated goals and objectives have been achieved. 34. LEVELS/APPROACH OF HEALTH EDUCATION 35. INDIVIDUAL LEVEL - Individual Approach: The health education must first create an atmosphere of friendship and allow the individual to talk as much as possible. In this individual teaching we can discuss, argue and persuade the individual to change his behaviour. But by this we can reach to a small population and who come in contact with us. Methods of individual health education 1) Home visit 2) Personal contact/ counselling 3) Personnel letters 36. 1) Home visit: A home visit is one of the best approaches for individual health education because it can become one of the best opportunities for health education with individuals and their families. Home visits are important to understand the real background of families, their living conditions and the environment in which they live. 37. 2) Personal contact/counseling : Personal contacts or counselling (one-to-one communication) is a helping process where one person explicitly and purposefully gives his or her time to assist people explore their situations and act on a solution. After this the counsellor needs to work together with the person to find solutions that are appropriate to their situation. 38. 3) personal letters: Personal letters may also be used for individual health education, where health educators may get an opportunity to dispatch letters or printed education material to the people in a target community. 39. GROUP LEVEL Group health education may be useful way to deliver health education massages in efficient manner. A well organized group permits sharing of experiences and skills so that people are able to learn from each other. 40. Methods of group discussion 1)Lecture method: (Chalk & Talk ) A lecture may be defined as carefully prepared oral presentation of facts organized thoughts and ideas by a qualified person. The group should not be more than 30 and talk should not exceed 15-20 minutes. By using suitable audiovisual aids. 2) Group discussion: A group is an aggregation of people interacting in a face to face situation. It is a very effective method of health communication. 41. 3) Demonstration: A demonstration is a carefully prepared presentation to show how to perform a skill. This procedure is carried out step by step before an audience. 4) Panel discussion: In a panel discussion 4-8 qualified persons talk about the topic. Sit and discuss a given topic in front of a large group/audience. The chairman opens the meeting. Panel comprises of a chair person and 4-8 speakers. After the main aspect of the subject are explored, the audience is invited to take part. 42. 5) Symposium: It is a series of speeches on a selected subject. Each expert person present it briefly and at the end of session the chair person make a comprehensive summary. Audience are allowed to raise question. 6) Workshops : It consists of series of meetings usually 4 or more with emphasis on an individual work, within the group and with the help of consultants and response personnel. 7) Role play: This is a brief acting out of an actual situation for the benefit of the audience for better understanding. 43. 8) Conference and seminars: This programmes are usually held on a regional, state/national level. Where several experts from different disciplines meet to deliberate on a particular theme, to appraise others of latest knowledge and research in a particular field. 9) Open forum: It refers to the public meeting which are held for various purposes in the community, for example: gram sabha 44. COMMUNITY LEVEL It is meant for a defined community and is not only to create awareness but also to help people understand their health problems and needs, find alternatives solutions to their problems and needs , implement them, evaluate and get feedback and accordingly do the needful. For health education at the community level, it is better to approach local leaders who are influential and who have the people’s confidence. These may include local officers such as gramsevak, panchayat sarpanch ,police officer or block development officer etc . 45. HOSPITAL LEVEL 1) Health Education in OPD/Outdoor: The patient and his attendants have to spend a lot of time in the outpatient department for health check-up, treatment, registration, diagnosis, admission procedure etc. This period can be utilised for health education. For this, the following means/devices can be used: - Exhibiting pictures, posters, charts, bulletin board and models in the waiting hall. - Arranging group discussion, slide show, or documentary film in a proper place and on a proper topic. - Giving health education on a personal level in the consulting room. This mainly includes nutrition clinic, family planning clinic, psychiatric clinic etc. 46. - Distributing pamphlets. - Arranging street plays or nukkad naatak in the outpatient department or its neighbourhood. 47. 2) Health Education in wards/ IPD: While taking care of the patients the indoor patients, doctors s have the opportunities to educate them. This period can be fully utilised to give health education to the patients. For this the following methods can be effective: - Conversation with the patient and motivating him for change in his behaviour. - Imparting health education by arranging live demonstration for nutrition, treatment, diagnosis etc. - Providing clinical or bedside teaching. - Providing incidental teaching to patient and his attendants. 48. - Presenting examples. To describe the gains of health education in an individual suffering from the same health education in an individual suffering from the same disease and arranging a meeting between the patient and the cured old patients.GUIDELINES ON THE ESTABLISHMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RESULTS-BASED PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION I. Rationale 1. The Civil Service Commission (CSC), through the issuance of Memorandum Circular (MC) No. 06, series of 2012, sets the guidelines on the establishment and implementation of the Strategic Performance Management System (SPMS) in all government agencies. The SPMS gives emphasis to the strategic alignment of the agency’s thrusts with the day-to-day operation of the units and individual personnel within the organization. It focuses on measures of performance vis-a-vis the targeted milestones, and provides a credible and verifiable basis for assessing the organizational outcomes and the collective performance of the government employees. 2. As a learner-centered institution, the Department of Education (DepEd) is committed to continuously improve itself to better serve the Filipino learners and the community. The adoption of the SPMS in DepEd strengthens the culture of performance and accountability in the agency, with the DepEd’s mandate, vision and mission at its core. 3. There is a need to concretize the linkage between the organizational thrusts and the performance management system. It is important to ensure organizational effectiveness and track individual improvement and efficiency by cascading the institutional accountabilities to the various levels, units and individual personnel, as anchored on the establishment of a rational and factual basis for performance targets and measures. Finally, it is necessary to link the SPMS with other systems relating to human resources and to ensure adherence to the principle of performance-based tenure and incentives. 4. In view of the above, this Order aims to adopt the SPMS as the Results-based Performance Management System (RPMS). II. Scope of Policy 5. This DepEd Order provides for the establishment and implementation of the RPMS in all DepEd schools and offices, covering all officials and employees, school-based and non school-based, in the Department holding regular plantilla positions. It stipulates the specific mechanisms, criteria and processes for the performance target setting, monitoring, evaluation and development planning. IV. Policy Statement 9. The DepEd hereby sets the guidelines on the establishment and implementation of the Results-based Performance Management System (RPMS) in the Department, stipulating the strategies, methods, tools and rewards for assessing the accomplishments vis-a-vis the commitments. This will be used for measuring and rewarding higher levels of performance of the various units and development planning of all personnel in all levels. 10. For non school-based personnel, the RPMS shall provide for an objective and verifiable basis for rating and ranking the performance of units and individual personnel in view of the granting of the Performance-Based Bonus (PBB) starting 2015. 11. For school-based personnel, the RPMS shall be used only as an appraisal tool, which shall be the basis for training and development. The granting of PBB shall be governed by the existing PBB guidelines. 12. The Department shall adopt the RPMS framework shown in Annex B. 13. The DepEd RPMS shall follow the four-stage performance management system cycle as prescribed by the CSC: i. Performance planning and commitment (Phase I); ii. Performance monitoring and coaching (Phase II); iii. Performance review and evaluation (Phase III); and iv. Performance rewarding and development planning (Phase IV). V. Performance Cycle/Process 14. The RPMS shall align the performance targets and accomplishments with the Department’s mandate, vision, mission and strategic goals. It shall ensure 100% results orientation vis-a-vis the planned targets. On the other hand, the ratee’s demonstration of the required competencies shall be monitored for developmental purposes only. 15. The RPMS cycle shall cover performance for one whole year. All school-based personnel shall follow a performance cycle starting in April of the current year and ending in March of the following year; while non school-based personnel shall follow a performance cycle starting in January and ending in December. Annexes C and D illustrate the performance cycles which shall apply to school-based and non school-based personnel, respectively. 16. The performance planning and commitment shall be done prior to the beginning of the performance cycle; while the performance monitoring and coaching shall take place immediately after Phase I, and continue throughout the performance cycle. The performance review and evaluation, as well as the performance rewarding and development planning shall be done at the end of the performance cycle. A. Phase I: Performance Planning and Commitment 17. The performance planning and commitment shall be done prior to the start of the performance cycle where the rater meets with the ratee to discuss and agree on the following: i. Office KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators as anchored to the overall organizational outcomes; and ii. Individual KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators as anchored to the Office KRAs and Objectives. 18. The Office Performance Commitment and Review Form (OPCRF) shall be accomplished by the head of office to reflect the Office KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators. The head of office, in coordination with the Planning Office, shall ensure alignment of the office plans and commitments to the overall organizational outcomes. The OPCRF shall be equivalent to the IPCRF of the head of office. A sample of the filled out OPCRF, including the instructions for accomplishing the form, is shown in Annex E. 19. The Individual Performance Commitment and Review Form (IPCRF) shall be accomplished by the individual personnel to reflect the agreed Individual KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators. A sample of the filled out IPCRF, including the instructions for accomplishing the form, is shown in Annex F. 20. Defining the Key Result Areas. The head of office, in coordination with the Planning Office, shall define the office KRAs as anchored on the overall organizational outcomes. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on the break down of the office KRAs into individual KRAs. Three (3) to five (5) KRAs shall be defined for each office and individual employee. KRAs are broad categories of general outputs or outcomes. It is the mandate or function of the office and/or individual employee. The KRA is the reason why an office and/or job exist. It is an area where the office and/or individual employee are expected to focus on. 21. Setting the Objectives. The head of office shall set three (3) objectives per office KRA. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on three (3) objectives per individual KRA. Objectives are specific tasks, which an office and/or employee need to do to achieve their specific KRAs. In objective setting, the SMART criteria, which stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time Bound, shall be applied. The SMART criteria are illustrated in Annex G. 22. Setting the Timeline. The timeline shall define the target date for accomplishing each of the Objectives. The timeline for the office Objectives shall be set by the head of office in coordination with the Planning Office and School Planning Team; while the timeline for the individual Objectives shall be discussed and agreed by the rater and the ratee. 23. Assigning the Weight. Assigning of weights shall be done per KRA. Weights for each office KRA shall be assigned by the head of office in coordination with the Planning Office; while the weights for each of the individual KRAs shall be discussed and agreed upon by the rater and the ratee. 24. Identifying the Performance Indicators. Using a five (5)-point rating scale, the head of office shall identify a performance indicator for each of the office objectives, while the rater and the ratee shall identify and agree on the performance indicator for each of the individual objectives. Performance indicators are exact quantification of objectives expressed through rubrics. They are assessment tools, which gauge whether a performance is positive or negative. In identifying the performance indicator, the operational definition or meaning of each numerical rating shall be indicated under each relevant dimension (i.e., quality, efficiency, or timeliness) per performance target or success indicator. This shall ensure that the rating is objective, impartial and verifiable. Table 1 below discusses the performance measures by which the indicator must satisfy. Table 1. Performance Measures CATEGORY DEFINITION Effectiveness/Quality The extent to which actual performance compares with targeted performance. The degree to which objectives are achieved and the extent to which targeted problems are solved. In management, effectiveness relates to getting the right things done. Efficiency The extent to which time or resources is used for the intended task or purpose. Measures whether targets are accomplished with a minimum amount or quantity of waste, expense, or unnecessary effort. Timeliness Measures whether the deliverable was done on time based on the requirements of the rules and regulations, and/or clients/stakeholders. Time-related performance indicators evaluate such things as project completion deadlines, time management skills and other time-sensitive expectations. Some Performances are only rated on quality and efficiency, some on quality and timeliness, and others on efficiency only. You need not use all three (3) categories. 25. Demonstration of Competencies. During Phase I, the rater shall discuss with the ratee the competencies required of the individual personnel. Competencies are defined as the knowledge, skills and behavior that individuals demonstrate in achieving one’s results. Competencies shall uphold the DepEd’s core values. They represent the way individuals define and live the values. 26. DepEd shall adopt four classes of competencies as follows: i. Core behavioral competencies are competencies, which cut across the organization; ii. Leadership competencies are competencies intended for managerial positions; a. Third level officials b. Chiefs and Assistant Chiefs c. School Heads and Department Heads iii. Staff Core Skills are competencies intended for staff and teaching-related personnel; and iv. Teaching competencies are competencies intended for teachers. The DepEd-required competencies are illustrated in Annex I. 27. The ratee’s demonstration of the required competencies shall be monitored to effectively plan the interventions needed for behavioral and professional development. The assessment in the demonstration of competencies shall not be reflected in the final rating. 28. Reaching Agreement. Once the office and individual KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators are clearly defined, the rater and the ratee shall commit and reach an agreement by signing the OPCRF and IPCRF. The signed/approved OPCRF and IPCRF shall be the basis for monitoring and assessment, which shall take place in Phases II and III, respectively. B. Phase II: Performance Monitoring and Coaching 29. The performance monitoring and coaching shall commence after the rater and the ratee commit on the KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators, and sign the OPCRF and IPCRF. This shall be done throughout the year. 30. The two (2) main components of Phase II are the following: i. Performance monitoring; and ii. Coaching and feedback. 31. Performance monitoring shall provide key inputs and objective basis for rating. It shall facilitate feedback and provide evidence of performance. Performance monitoring shall be the responsibility of both the rater and the ratee who agree to track and record significant incidents through the use of the Performance Monitoring and Coaching Form (PMCF) shown in Annex J. Significant incidents are actual events and behaviors in which both positive and negative performances are observed and documented. 32. Coaching and feedback shall be a continuous process. Coaching and feedback shall be provided by the rater and/or shall be sought by the ratee to improve work performance and behavior. The rater, as the coach or mentor of the ratee, playing a critical role in the performance monitoring and coaching, shall provide an enabling environment and intervention to improve the office performance and to manage and develop individual potentials. 33. The PMCF shall capture the significant incidents. It shall provide a record of demonstrated behaviors, competencies and performance, and shall be an effective substitute in the absence of quantifiable data. The rater and the ratee shall sign each significant incident recorded in the PMCF to ensure that agreement has been reached. C. Phase III: Performance Review and Evaluation 34. The performance review and evaluation shall be done at the end of the performance cycle to assess the office and individual employee’s performance level based on the commitments and measures as contained in the signed OPCRF and IPCRF. 35. A mid-year review is prescribed to determine the progress in achieving the Objectives. In exceptional cases, and only if the situation warrants, a one-time recalibration of office and individual Objectives shall be allowed during the mid-year review. Exceptional cases shall include instances when high level decisions are taken into effect such as changes in strategic directions, and circumstances beyond the control of the ratee such as natural and/or man-made calamities, including typhoon, earthquake and other fortuitous events. During the mid-year review, the rater shall inform in writing the ratee of the status of performance, in case of an Unsatisfactory or Poor performance. Coaching, feedback and appropriate interventions shall be provided where necessary. 36. The RPMS shall put premium on KRAs towards the realization of organizational vision, mission, strategic priorities and the OPIF logframe. Hence, rating for planned and/or intervening tasks shall always be supported by reports, documents or any output as proofs of actual performance. In the absence of said bases or proofs, a particular task shall not be rated and shall be disregarded. 37. Office and Individual Performance Assessment. The head of office, in coordination with the Planning Office, shall assess the performance of the office vis-a-vis the committed targets at the beginning of the performance cycle. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on the individual assessment based on the actual accomplishments of each of the KRAs and Objectives. The final rating shall be based solely on the accomplishment of the specific objectives as measured by the Performance Indicators. The OPCRF and IPCRF shall be accomplished and completed by the rater and the ratee to: i. Reflect actual accomplishments and results; ii. Rate each of the objectives; iii. Compute for the score per objective; iv. Determine the overall rating for accomplishments; v. Reach an agreement; and vi. Assess the competencies. 38. Initial self-rating shall be encouraged prior to the rater-ratee discussion. 39. Third Level Officials, as heads of offices, shall accomplish the OPCRF for submission to the Planning Office. The individual assessment of Third Level Officials shall be contained in the CESPES Forms for submission to the Career Executive Service Board (CESB). The BHROD and Personnel Division shall be furnished a copy of both forms. 40. Actual Results. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on the actual accomplishments and results based on the performance commitments and measures made at the beginning of the rating period. They shall evaluate each objective whether it has been achieved or not. The significant incidents as reflected in the PMCF shall be considered for the actual results. 41. Rating the Objectives. Based on the actual accomplishments and results, each of the Objectives shall be rated using the rating scale specified below: Table 2. The RPMS Rating Scale NUMERICAL RATING ADJECTIVAL RATING DESCRIPTION OF MEANING OF RATING 5 Outstanding Performance represents an extraordinary level of achievement and commitment in terms of quality and time, technical skills and knowledge, ingenuity, creativity and initiative. Employees at this performance level should have demonstrated exceptional job mastery in all major areas of responsibility. Employee achievement and contributions to the organization are of marked excellence. 4 Very Satisfactory Performance exceeded expectations. All goals, objectives and targets were achieved above the established standards. 3 Satisfactory Performance met expectations in terms of quality of work, efficiency and timeliness. The most critical annual goals were met. 2 Unsatisfactory Performance failed to meet expectations, and/or one or more of the most critical goals were not met. 1 Poor Performance was consistently below expectations, and/or reasonable progress toward critical goals was not made. Significant improvement is needed in one or more important areas. The final assessment shall correspond to the adjectival description of Outstanding, Very Satisfactory, Satisfactory, Unsatisfactory or Poor. The range of adjectival rating is as per attached in Forms A, B, and C. 42. Process for Computing the Score per KRA. i. The rater and ratee shall ensure that each KRA has been assigned weight according to priority. ii. As an option, the rater and ratee may assign weights to objectives which shall be equal to the total weight assigned to a particular KRA. KRA 1 – Weight assigned is 40% Objective 1 is 20% Objective 2 is 10% Objective 3 is 10% iii. The score per KRA shall be computed using the following formula: 43. Plus Factor. The plus factor shall be considered as another KRA. These are value adding accomplishments, which are not covered within the regular duties and responsibilities. The weight on the plus factor shall not exceed the weight of the highest mandated KRA. For teachers, the plus factor shall be limited to work/activities, which contribute to the teaching-learning process. 44. Determining the Overall Rating for Accomplishments. The overall rating/assessment for the accomplishments shall fall within the following adjectival ratings and shall be in three (3) decimal points: Table 3. Adjectival Ratings RANGE ADJECTIVAL RATING 4.500-5.000 Outstanding 3.500-4.499 Very Satisfactory 2.500-3.499 Satisfactory 1.500-2.499 Unsatisfactory below 1.499 Poor 45. Reaching Agreement. Upon determining the overall rating for the actual accomplishments and results, the rater and the ratee shall reach an agreement by signing the OPCRF and IPCRF. The average rating of individual staff members should not go higher than the collective performance assessment of the office. 46. Assessing the Competencies. The rater shall discuss with the ratee the set of competencies observed during the performance cycle. The competencies shall not be reflected in the final rating. Competencies shall be monitored for developmental purposes. In evaluating the individual’s demonstration of competencies, the rating scale in Table 4 shall apply: Table 4. The DepEd Competencies Scale SCALE DEFINITION 5 Role model 4 Consistently demonstrates 3 Most of the time demonstrates 2 Sometimes demonstrates 1 Rarely demonstrates 5 (role model) – all competency indicators 4 (consistently demonstrates) – four competency indicators 3 (most of the time demonstrates) – three competency indicators 2 (sometimes demonstrates) – two competency indicators 1 (rarely demonstrates) – one competency indicator D. Phase IV: Performance Rewarding and Development Planning 47. The results of the performance review and evaluation shall be used in performance rewarding and development planning. This phase shall be done after Phase III. 48. The rater shall discuss and provide qualitative comments, observations and recommendations in the individual employee’s performance commitment, competency assessment and significant incidents which shall be used for training and professional development. These can be written under the strengths and development needs column of the Part IV-Development Plans of the IPCRF. 49. The rater and the ratee shall identify and discuss the individual’s strengths and development needs, and reflect them in the Part IV-Development Plans of the IPCRF. The competencies which the ratee demonstrated consistently and the areas, where the ratee meet or exceed expectations shall be referred to as the ratee’s strengths. The competencies, which the ratee rarely demonstrates and the areas where the ratee has room for improvement and has not met the expectations, shall be identified as the ratee’s development needs. Make a situational SOLO-based questions in the context of school leadershipOwls, such as the young snowy owls on the previous page, have for centuries been symbols of both wisdom and mystery. To many cultures their piercing eyes have conveyed a look of intelligence. Their silent flight through darkened landscapes in search of prey has projected an air of power or wonder. For this chapter and this book, owls are an engaging example of a living organism from the world of biology—the study of life. BIOLOGY AND YOU Living in a small town, in the country, or at the edge of the suburbs, one may be lucky enough to hear an owl's hooting. This experience can lead to questions about where the bird lives, what it hunts, and how it finds its prey on dark, moonless nights. Biology, or the study of life, offers an organized and scientific framework for posing and answering such questions about the natural world. Biologists study questions about how living things work, how they interact with the environment, and how they change over time. Biologists study many different kinds of living things ranging from tiny organisms, such as bacteria, to very large organisms, such as elephants. Each day, biologists investigate subjects that affect you and the way you live. For example, biologists determine which foods are healthy. As shown in Figure 1-1, everyone is affected by this impor- tant topic. Biologists also study how much a person should exer- cise and how one can avoid getting sick. Biologists also study what CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE The world is filled with familiar objects, such as tables, rocks, plants, pets, and automobiles. Which of these objects are living or were once living? What are the criteria for assigning something to the living world or the nonliving world? Biologists have established that living things share seven characteristics of life. These characteristics are organization and the presence of one or more cells, response to a stimulus (plural, stimuli), homeostasis, metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and change through time. Organization and Cells Organization is the high degree of order within an organism’s internal and external parts and in its interactions with the living world. For example, compare an owl to a rock. The rock has a spe- cific shape, but that shape is usually irregular. Furthermore, differ- ent rocks, even rocks of the same type, are likely to have different shapes and sizes. In contrast, the owl is an amazingly organized individual, as shown in Figure 1-2. Owls of the same species have the same body parts arranged in nearly the same way and interact with the environment in the same way. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. ORGANISM (Barn Owl) ORGAN (Owl’s Ear) TISSUE (Nervous Tissue Within the Ear) CELL (Nerve Cell) your air, land, and fAll living organisms, whether made up of one cell or many cells, have some degree of organization. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all life’s processes. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are made up of one cell and are called unicellular (YOON-uh-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Other organisms, such as humans or trees, are made up of multiple cells and are called multicellular (MUHL-ti-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Complex multicellular organisms have the level of orga- nization shown in Figure 1-2. In the highest level, the organism is made up of organ systems, or groups of specialized parts that carry out a certain function in the organism. For example, an owl’s ner- vous system is made up of a brain, sense organs, nerve cells, and other parts that sense and respond to the owl’s surroundings. Organ systems are made up of organs. Organs are structures that carry out specialized jobs within an organ system. An owl’s ear is an organ that allows the owl to hear. All organs are made up of tissues. Tissues are groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function. For example, nervous tissue in the ear allows the ear to detect sound. Tissues are made up of cells. A cell must be covered by a membrane, contain all genetic information necessary for replication, and be able to carry out all cell functions. Within each cell are organelles. Organelles are tiny structures that carry out functions necessary for the cell to stay alive. Organelles contain biological molecules, the chemical compounds that provide physical structure and that bring about movement, energy use, and other cellular functions. All biological molecules are made up of atoms. Atoms are the simplest particle of an ele- ment that retains all the properties of a certain element. Response to Stimuli Another characteristic of life is that an organism can respond to a stimulus—a physical or chemical change in the internal or external environment. For example, an owl dilates its pupils to keep the level of light entering the eye constant. Organisms must be able to respond and react to changes in their environment to stay alive. ORGANELLE (Mitochondrion) BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE (Phospholipid) ATOM (Oxygen) cell from the Latin, cella meaning “small room,” or “hut” Word Roots and Origins www.scilinks.org Topic: Characteristics of Life Keyword: HM60257 mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 7 8 CHAPTER 1 Homeostasis All living things, from single cells to entire organisms, have mecha- nisms that allow them to maintain stable internal conditions. Without these mechanisms, organisms can die. For example, a cell’s water content is closely controlled by the taking in or releas- ing of water. A cell that takes in too much water will rupture and die. A cell that doesn’t get enough water will also shrivel and die. Homeostasis (HOH-mee-OH-STAY-sis) is the maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions even though environmental conditions are constantly changing. Organisms have regulatory systems that maintain internal conditions, such as temperature, water content, and uptake of nutrients by the cell. In fact, multi- cellular organisms usually have more than one way of maintain- ing important aspects of their internal environment. For example, an owl’s temperature is maintained at about 40°C (104°F). To keep a constant temperature, an owl’s cells burn fuel to produce body heat. In addition, an owl’s feathers can fluff up in cold weather. In this way, they trap an insulating layer of air next to the bird’s body to maintain its body temperature. Metabolism Living organisms use energy to power all the life processes, such as repair, movement, and growth. This energy use depends on metabolism (muh-TAB-uh-LIZ-uhm). Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take in and transform energy and materials from the environment. For example, plants, algae, and some bacteria use the sun’s energy to generate sugar molecules during a process called photosynthesis. Some organisms depend on obtaining food energy from other organisms. For instance, an owl’s metabolism allows the owl to extract and modify the chemi- cals trapped in its nightly prey and use them as energy to fuel activities and growth. Growth and Development All living things grow and increase in size. Some nonliving things, such as crystals or icicles, grow by accumulating more of the same material of which they are made. In contrast, the growth of living things results from the division and enlargement of cells. Cell division is the formation of two new cells from an existing cell, as shown in Figure 1-3. In unicellular organisms, the primary change that occurs following cell division is cell enlargement. In multi- cellular life, however, organisms mature through cell division, cell enlargement, and development. Development is the process by which an organism becomes a mature adult. Development involves cell division and cell differen- tiation, or specialization. As a result of development, an adult organism is composed of many cells specialized for different func- tions, such as carrying oxygen in the blood or hearing. In fact, the human body is composed of trillions of specialized cells, all of which originated from a single cell, the fertilized egg. This unicellular organism, Escherichia coli, inhabits the human intestines. E. coli reproduces by means of cell division, during which the original cell splits into two identical offspring cells. FIGURE 1-3 Observing Homeostasis Materials 500 mL beakers (3), wax pen, tap water, thermometer, ice, hot water, goldfish, small dip net, watch or clock with a second hand Procedure 1. Use a wax pen to label three 500 mL beakers as follows: 27°C (80°F), 20°C (68°F), 10°C (50°F). Put 250 mL of tap water in each beaker. Use hot water or ice to adjust the tem- perature of the water in each beaker to match the temperature on the label. 2. Put the goldfish in the beaker of 27°C water. Record the number of times the gills move in 1 minute. 3. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 20°C water. Repeat observations. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 10°C. Repeat observations. Analysis What happens to the rate at which gills move when the temp- erature changes? Why? How do gills help fish maintain homeostasis? Quick Lab mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 8 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 9 Reproduction All organisms produce new organisms like themselves in a process called reproduction. Reproduction, unlike other characteristics, is not essential to the survival of an individual organism. However, because no organism lives forever, reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species. Glass frogs, as shown in Figure 1-4, lay many eggs in their lifetime. However, only a few of the frogs’ off- spring reach adulthood and successfully reproduce. During reproduction, organisms transmit hereditary informa- tion to their offspring. Hereditary information is encoded in a large molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. A short segment of DNA that contains the instructions for a single trait of an organism is called a gene. DNA is like a large library. It contains all the books—genes—that the cell will ever need for making all the struc- tures and chemicals necessary for life. Hereditary information is transferred to offspring during two kinds of reproduction. In sexual reproduction, hereditary information recombines from two organisms of the same species. The resulting offspring are similar but not identical to their parents. For example, a male frog’s sperm can fertilize a female’s egg and form a single fer- tilized egg cell. The fertilized egg then develops into a new frog. In asexual reproduction, hereditary information from different organisms is not combined; thus the original organism and the new organism are genetically the same. A bacterium, for example, reproduces asexually when it splits into two identical cells. Change Through Time Although individual organisms experience many changes during their lifetime, their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of living organisms evolve or change through time. The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. This factor is also impor- tant in explaining the diversity of life-forms we see on Earth today. 1. How does biology affect a person’s daily life? 2. How does biology affect society? 3. Name the characteristics shared by living things. 4. Summarize the hierarchy of organization found in complex multicellular organisms. 5. What are the different functions of homeostasis and metabolism in living organisms? 6. How does the growth among living and nonliv- ing things differ? 7. Why is reproduction an important characteristic of life? CRITICAL THINKING 8. Applying Information Crystals of salt grow and are highly organized. Why don’t biologists con- sider them to be alive? 9. Analyzing Models When a scientist designs a space probe to detect life on a distant planet, what kinds of things should it measure? 10. Making Comparisons Both cells and organisms share the characteristics of life. How are cells and organismsood supply will be like in the near future.EVOLUTION OF LIFE Individual organisms change during their lifetime, but their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of liv- ing organisms do change through time, or evolve. Evolution, or descent with modification, is the process in which the inherited characteristics within populations change over generations, such that genetically distinct populations and new species can develop. Evolution as a theme in biology helps us understand how the various branches of the “tree of life” came into existence and have changed over time. It also explains how organisms alive today are related to those that lived in the past. Finally, it helps us understand the mechanisms that underlie the way organisms look and behave. Natural Selection The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. According to the theory of evolution by natural selection, organisms that have certain favorable traits are better able to survive and reproduce success- fully than organisms that lack these traits. One product of natural selection is the adaptation of organisms to their environment. Adaptations are traits that improve an indi- vidual’s ability to survive and reproduce. For example, rabbits with white fur and short ears in a snowy place, such as the one in Figure 1-7a, may avoid predators and frostbitten ears more often than those with dark fur and long ears. Thus, the next generation of rabbits will have a greater percentage of animals carrying the genes for white fur and short ears. In contrast, the brown, long- eared rabbit, as shown in Figure 1-7b, would survive and reproduce more successfully in a hot desert environment. The survival and reproductive success of organisms with favor- able traits cause a change in populations of organisms over gener- ations. This descent with modification is an important factor in explaining the diversity of organisms we see on Earth today. 1. Name three unifying themes found in biology. 2. How is the unity and diversity in the living world represented? 3. Identify the three domains and the kingdoms found in each domain. 4. How are organisms interdependent? 5. Describe why evolution is important in explain- ing the diversity of life. 6. Distinguish between evolution and natural selection. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Applying Information Assign the various top- pings you put on pizza to the appropriate domains and kingdoms of life. 8. Analyzing Graphics According to the “tree” in Figure 1-5, which of these pairs are more closely related: Archaea:Bacteria or Archaea:Eukarya? 9. Making Hypotheses Fossil evidence shows that bats descended from shrewlike organisms that could not fly. Write a hypothesis for how natural selection might have led to flying bats. SECTION 2 REVIEW (a) This short-eared arctic hare, Lepus arcticus, is hidden from predators and protected from frostbite in a snowy environment. (b) The mottled brown coats of desert rabbits blend in with the dirt and dry grasses, and their long ears help them radiate excess heat and thus avoid overheating. FIGURE 1-7 (a) (b) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 13 TH E STUDY OF BIOLOGY Curiosity leads us to ask questions about life. Science provides a way of answering such questions about the natural world. Science is a systematic method that involves forming and testing hypotheses. More importantly, science relies on evidence, not beliefs, for drawing conclusions. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Science is characterized by an organized approach, called the scientific method, to learn how the natural world works. The methods of science are based on two important principles. The first principle is that events in the natural world have natural causes. For example, the ancient Greeks believed that lightning and thunder occurred because a supernatural god Zeus hurled thunderbolts from the heavens. By contrast, a scientist considers lightning and thunder to result from electric charges in the atmos- phere. When trying to solve a puzzle from nature, all scientists, such as the one in Figure 1-8, accept that there is a natural cause to solve that puzzle. A second principle of science is uniformity. Uniformity is the idea that the fundamental laws of nature operate the same way at all places and at all times. For example, scientists assume that the law of gravity works the same way on Mars as it does on Earth. Steps of the Scientific Method Although there is no single method for doing science, scientific studies involve a series of common steps. 1. The process of science begins with an observation. An observation is the act of perceiving a natural occurrence that causes someone to pose a question. 2. One tries to answer the question by forming hypotheses (singular, hypothesis). A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the way a particular aspect of the natural world functions. 3. A prediction is a statement that forecasts what would happen in a test situation if the hypothesis were true. A prediction is recorded for each hypothesis. 4. An experiment is used to test a hypothesis and its predictions. 5. Once the experiment has been concluded, the data are analyzed and used to draw conclusions. 6. After the data have been analyzed, the data and conclusions are communicated to scientific peers and to the public. This way oth- ers can verify, reject, or modify the researcher’s conclusions. SECTION 3 OBJECTIVES ● Outline the main steps in the scientific method. ● Summarize how observations are used to form hypotheses. ● List the elements of a controlled experiment. ● Describe how scientists use data to draw conclusions. ● Compare a scientific hypothesis and a scientific theory. ● State how communication in science helps prevent dishonesty and bias. VOCABULARY scientific method observation hypothesis prediction experiment control group experimental group independent variable dependent variable theory peer review All researchers, such as the one releasing an owl above, use the scientific method to answer the questions they have about nature. FIGURE 1-8 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 14 CHAPTER 1 OBSERVING AND ASKING QUESTIONS The scientific method generally begins with an unexplained observa- tion about nature. For example, people have noticed for thousands of years that owls can catch prey in near total darkness. As shown in steps and of Figure 1-9, an observation may then raise ques- tions. The owl observation raises the question: How does an owl detect prey in the dark? FORMING A HYPOTHESIS After stating a question, a biologist lists possible answers to a sci- entific question—hypotheses. Good hypotheses answer a question and are testable in the natural world. For example, as shown in step Figure 1-9, there are several possible hypotheses for the question of how owls hunt at night: (a) owls hunt by keen vision in the dark; (b) owls hunt by superb hearing; or (c) owls hunt by detecting the prey’s body heat. Predicting To test a hypothesis, scientists make a prediction that logically fol- lows from the hypothesis. A prediction is what is expected to hap- pen if each hypothesis were true. For example, if hypothesis (a) is true, (owls hunt by keen night vision) then one can predict that the owl will pounce only on the mouse in either a light or a dark room. If hypothesis (b) is true (owls hunt by hearing), then one can pre- dict that in a lighted room, the owl will pounce closer to the mouse’s head. But, in a dark room, the owl should pounce closer to a rustling leaf attached to the mouse. Finally, if hypothesis (c) is true (owls hunt by sensing body heat), then an owl would strike only the prey no matter the room conditions, because owls hunt by detecting the prey’s body heat. 3 1 2 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. A scientific study includes observations, questions, hypotheses, predictions, experiments, data analysis, and conclu- sions. A biologist can use the scientific method to set up an experiment to learn how an owl captures prey at night. FIGURE 1-9 1 OBSERVATION Owls capture prey on dark nights. 2 QUESTION How do owls detect prey on dark nights? 3 HYPOTHESES a) Owls hunt in the dark by vision. b) Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. c) Owls hunt in the dark by sensing body heat. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 15 Notice that these predictions make it difficult to distinguish be- tween the vision and body heat hypotheses. The reason is that both hypotheses predict that the owl could grab the mouse in a dark room. Also, these three hypotheses do not eliminate all other factors that could influence how the owl finds its prey. However, testing predictions can allow one to begin rejecting hypotheses and thus to get closer to determining the answer(s) to a question. DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT Biologists often test hypotheses by setting up an experiment. Step in Figure 1-9 outlines an experiment to test the hypotheses about how an owl hunts at night. First, experimenters set up a room with an owl perch high on one side and a small trap door on the other side for releasing mice. Then, they tied a leaf to each mouse’s tail with a string and released each mouse into the room. Next, each mouse ran silently across the room, but the leaf trailed behind, making a rustling noise. During half of the trials, the lights were on. During the other half, the room was dark. Technicians videotaped all the action in the chamber with an infrared light, which owls cannot see. The researchers then viewed the videos and measured the position of the owl’s strike relative to each mouse’s head. Performing the Experiment Many scientists use a controlled experiment to test their hypotheses. A controlled experiment compares an experimental group and a control group and only has one variable. The control group pro- vides a normal standard against which the biologist can compare results of the experimental group. The experimental group is iden- tical to the control group except for one factor, the independent variable. The experimenter manipulates the independent variable, sometimes called the manipulated variable. 4 4 EXPERIMENT 5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Measure and compare the distance from the owl’s strike to the mouse and to the leaf in light and dark. 6 CONCLUSION Data supported the hearing hypothesis: Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. prey Test predictions of the three hypotheses. Control: In the light Experimental: In the dark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Predicting Results Materials 2 Petri dishes with agar, cellophane tape, wax pen Procedure 1. Open one of the Petri dishes, and streak your finger across the surface of the agar. 2. Replace the lid, and seal it with the tape. Label this Petri dish with your name and a number 1. 3. Seal the second Petri dish with- out removing the lid. Label this Petri dish with your name and the number 2. 4. Write a prediction about what will happen in each dish. Store your dishes as your teacher directs. Record your observations. Follow your teacher’s directions for disposal of your dishes. Analysis Was your prediction accurate? What evidence can you cite to support your prediction? If you did not obtain the results you predicted, would you change your testing method or your prediction? Explain. Evaluate the importance of obtaining a result that does not support your prediction. Quick Lab mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 15 16 CHAPTER 1 The independent variable in the owl experiment is the presence or absence of light. In the owl experiment, the control group hunts in the light, and the experimental group hunts in the dark. In addi- tion to varying the independent variable, a scientist observes or measures another factor called the dependent variable, or respond- ing variable, because it is affected by the independent variable. In the owl experiment, the dependent variable is distance from the owl’s strike to the mouse’s head. Testing the Experiment Some controlled experiments are conducted “blind.” In other words, the biologist who scores the results is unaware of whether a given subject is part of the experimental or control group. This factor helps eliminate experimenter bias. Experiments should also be repeated, because living systems are variable. Moreover, scien- tists must collect enough data to find meaningful results. COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA Most experiments measure a variable—the dependent variable. This measurement provides quantitative data, data measured in numbers. For example, in the experiment above, scientists mea- sured the distance of an owl’s strike from the prey’s head in cen- timeters, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. An event’s duration in milliseconds is also an example of quantitative data. Biologists usually score the results of an experiment by using one of their senses. They might see or hear the results of an experiment. Scientists also extend their senses with a micro- scope for tiny objects or a microphone for soft sounds. In the owl experiment, biologists extended their vision with infrared cameras. Analyzing and Comparing Data After collecting data from a field study or an experiment and then organizing it, biologists then analyze the data. In analyzing data, the goal is to determine whether the data are reliable, and whether they support or fail to support the predictions of the hypothesis. To do so, scientists may use statistics to help determine relation- ships between the variables involved. They can then compare their data with other data that were obtained in other similar studies. It is also important at this time to determine possible sources of error in the experiment just per- formed. Scientists usually display their data in tables or graphs when analyzing it. For the owl study, biologists could have made a bar graph such as the one in Figure 1-10, which shows the average distance from the owl’s strike relative to the mouse’s head or the leaf in the light and in the dark. 5 5 0 10 15 20 25 In the light In the dark Average distance from strike (cm) Distance Between Owl Strike and a Mouse or From a Leaf Attached to Mouse 30 Mouse Leaf Mouse Leaf The data below are hypothetical results that might occur from the described owl experiment.The independent variable is the darkness of the room, and the dependent variable is how far the owl struck from the mouse’s head.The data show that the owl strikes more accurately at the mouse in the light but strikes more accurately at the leaf in the dark. FIGURE 1-10 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 17 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Biologists analyze their tables, graphs, and charts to draw conclu- sions about whether or not a hypothesis is supported, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. The hypothetical owl data show that in the light, owls struck with greater accuracy at the mouse than at the leaf, but in the dark, owls struck with greater accuracy at the leaf than the mouse. Thus, the findings support the hearing hypothe- sis, but not the vision hypothesis. An experiment can only disprove, not prove, a hypothesis. For example, one cannot conclude from the results that the hearing hypothesis is proven to be true. Perhaps the owl uses an unknown smell to strike at the mouse. One can only reject the vision hypothe- sis because it did not predict the results of the experiment correctly. Acceptance of a hypothesis is always tentative in science. The scientific community revises its understanding of phenomena, based on new data. Having ruled out one hypothesis, a biologist will devise more tests to try to rule out any remaining hypotheses. Making Inferences Scientists often draw inferences from data gathered during a field study or experiment. An inference (IN-fuhr-uhns) is a conclusion made on the basis of facts and previous knowledge rather than on direct observations. Unlike a hypothesis, an inference is not directly testable. In the owl study, it is inferred that the owl detects prey from a distance rather than by direct touch. Applying Results and Building Models As shown in Figure 1-11, scientists often apply their findings to solve practical problems. They also build models to represent or describe things. For example in 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick used cardboard balls and wire bars to build physical models of atoms in an attempt to understand the structure of DNA. Mathematical models are sets of equations that describe how dif- ferent measurable items interact in a system. The experimenter can adjust variables to better model the real-world data. CONSTRUCTING A THEORY When a set of related hypotheses is confirmed to be true many times, and it can explain a great amount of data, scientists often reclassify it as a theory. Some examples include the quantum the- ory, the cell theory, or the theory of evolution. People commonly use the word “theory” in a different way than scientists use the word. People may say “It’s just a theory” suggesting that an idea is untested, but scientists view a theory as a highly tested, generally accepted principle that explains a vast number of observations and experimental data. 6 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Biologists often apply their knowledge of the natural world to practical problems. Studies on the owl’s keen ability to locate sounds in space despite background noise are helping biotechnologists and bioengineers develop better solutions for people with impaired hearing, such as the people shown in this picture. FIGURE 1-11 18 CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATING IDEAS An essential aspect of scientific research is scientists working together. Scientists often work together in research teams or sim- ply share research results with other scientists. This is done by publishing findings in scientific journals or presenting them at sci- entific meetings, as shown in Figure 1-12. Sharing information allows others working independently to verify findings or to con- tinue work on established results. For example, Roger Payne pub- lished the results of his owl experiments in a journal in 1971. Then, other biologists could repeat it for verification or use it to study the mechanisms introduced by the paper. With the growing impor- tance of science in solving societal issues, it is becoming increas- ingly vital for scientists to be able to communicate with the public at large. Publishing a Paper Scientists submit research papers to scientific journals for publica- tion. A typical research paper has four sections. First, the Introduction poses the problem and hypotheses to be investigated. Next, the Materials and Methods describe how researchers proceeded with the experiment. Third, the Results state the findings the experiment presented, and finally, the Discussion gives the significance of the experiment and future directions the scientists will take. Job Description Forensic biolo- gists are scientists who study biological materials to investigate potential crimes and other legal issues against humans and animals. Forensic scientists have knowledge in areas of biology, such as DNA and blood pattern analysis, and work in private sector and public laboratories. Focus On a Forensic Biologist As a law enforcement forensic specialist for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Beverly Villarreal assists the game warden in investigations of fish and wildlife violations, such as illegal hunting and fishing. Villarreal analyzes blood and tissue samples to identify species of animals such as fish, birds, and reptiles. Her work helps game wardens as they enforce state laws regarding hunting and fishing. Most people think of forensic scientists as the glamorous crime investigators on TV, but according to Villarreal real forensic scientists “spend a great deal of time at a lab bench running analysis after analysis.” Many of the methods used in animal forensics, such as DNA sequenc- ing, are also used in human forensics. Education and Skills • High school—three years of science courses and four years of math courses. • College—bachelor of science in biol- ogy, including course work in zoology and genetics, plus experience in per- forming DNA analyses. • Skills—patience, attention to detail, and ability to use fine tools. Careers in BIOLOGY Forensic Biologist For more about careers, visit go.hrw.com and type in the keyword HM6 Careers. www.scilinks.org Topic: Scientific Investigations Keyword: HM61358 mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 18 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 19 1. What two principles make the scientific method a unique process? 2. Define the roles of observations and hypotheses in science. 3. Summarize the parts of a controlled experiment. 4. Summarize how we make conclusions about the results of an experiment. 5. Why is the phrase, “it’s just a theory” misleading? 6. Give another example of a conflict of interest. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Making Hypotheses On a nocturnal owl’s skull, one ear points up, and the other ear points down. Suggest a hypothesis for this observation. 8. Designing Experiments Design an experiment to establish if owls hunt by keen sight or hunt by heat seeking. 9. Calculating Information What was the average distance between the owl’s strike and the mouse if the recorded differences in this experiment were 25, 22, 19, 19, and 15? SECTION 3 REVIEW After scientists submit their papers to a scientific journal, the editors of that journal will send the paper out for peer review. In a peer review, scientists who are experts in the field anonymously read and critique that research paper. They determine if a paper pro- vides enough information so that the experiment can be duplicated and if the author used good experimental controls and reached an accurate conclusion. They also check if the paper is written clearly enough for broad understanding. Careful analysis of each other’s research by fellow scientists is essential to making scientific progress and preventing scientific dishonesty. HONESTY AND BIAS The scientific community depends on both honesty and good sci- ence. While designing new studies, experimenters must be very careful to prevent previous ideas and biases from tainting both the experimental process and the conclusions. Scientists have to keep in mind that they are always trying to disprove their favorite ideas. Scientists repeat experiments to verify previous findings. This allows for science to have a method for self-correction and it also keeps researchers honest and credible to their peers in the field. Conflict of Interest For most scientists, maintaining a good reputation for collecting and presenting valid data is more important than temporary prestige or income. So, scientists try to avoid any potential conflicts of interest. For example, a scientist who owns a biotechnology company and manufactures a drug would not be the best researcher to critically test that drug’s safety and effectiveness. To avoid this potential con- flict of interest, the scientist allows an unaffected party, such as a research group, to test the drug’s effectiveness. The threat of a potential scandal based on misleading data or conclusions is a pow- erful force in science that helps keep scientists honest and fair. Scientists present their experiments in various forms. The scientists above are presenting their work in the form of a poster at a scientific meeting. FIGURE 1-12 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. The Internet can provide a wealth of scientific information for a report, but the information may not always be credible or accurate. You can use the methods above to check the accuracy and credibility of your sources. SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY SCIENCE ON THE INTERNET: A New Information Age I n the past, students research- ing a science topic would typ- ically begin their research by visiting a library to use printed reference materials, such as encyclopedias. Today, most stu- dents research topics by using a computer and searching for information on the Internet. The Internet can provide students with a wealth of infor- mation. But which Web sites have accurate information, and which Web sites do not? Checking Web Addresses Students should use the Web address, or URL, to establish the Web site’s credibility. Usually, the domain name can suggest who has published the Web site. Web sites can be pub- lished by governmental agen- cies (ends in “dot gov” or .gov), by educational institutions (ends in “dot edu” or .edu), by organizations (ends in “dot org” or .org), or by commercial businesses (ends in “dot com” or .com). Government Web sites are usually reliable. Examples of credible governmental Web sites are the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). University and medical school sites are also reliable sources of information. Many organiza- tions that research and teach the public about specific diseases and conditions can also provide reliable information. Examples of such organizations are the American Cancer Society and the American Heart Association. Evaluating Web Sites The credibility of the author of the Web site should also be checked. Make sure the author is not trying to sell anything and is established in his or her field. For example, a health Web site’s author should be a med- ical professional. It is also important to check the date that the information was posted on the Web to ensure that the information is current. Also, the Web site should provide ref- erences from valid sources, such as scientific journals or govern- ment publications. Finally, the student should always double-check informa- tion between several reliable Web sites. If two or three reliable sites provide the same informa- tion, the student can feel confi- dent in using that information. Web Sites for Students The Internet Connect boxes in this textbook have all been reviewed by professionals at the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). Students can trust that these sites are reliable sources for science- or health-related topics. REVIEW 1. Which types of Web addresses are the most reliable? 2. List four important features to evaluate when using a Web site for research. 3. Supporting Reasoned Opinions Why do you think a Web site that is advertising a product may not offer accurate information? REVIEW 20 www.scilinks.org Topic: Using the Internet Keyword: HM61589 mb06se_biosts.qxd 5/18/07 10:42 AM Page 20 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES With proper equipment and good methods, biologists can see, manipulate, and understand the natural world in new ways. Microscopes are one of many useful tools used to unlock nature’s biological secrets. MICROSCOPES AS TOOLS Tools are objects used to improve the performance of a task. Microscopes are tools that extend human vision by making enlarged images of objects. Biologists use microscopes to study organisms, cells, cell parts, and molecules. Microscopes reveal details that otherwise might be difficult or impossible to see. Light Microscopes To see small organisms and cells, biologists typically use a light microscope, such as the one shown in Figure 1-13. A compound light microscope is a microscope that shines light through a spec- imen and has two lenses to magnify an image. To use this micro- scope, one first mounts the specimen to be viewed on a glass slide. The specimen must be thin enough for light to pass through it. For tiny pond organisms, such as the single-celled paramecium, light passing through the organism is not a problem. For thick objects, such as plant stems, biologists must cut thin slices for viewing. There are four major parts of a compound light microscope. For further description of the parts of a micro- scope, see the Appendix. 1. Eyepiece The eyepiece (ocular (AHK-yoo-luhr) lens) magnifies the image, usually 10 times. 2. Objective Lens Light passes through the specimen and then through the objective lens, which is located directly above the specimen. The objective lens enlarges the image of the specimen. Scientists sometimes use stains to make the image easier to see. 3. Stage The stage is a platform that supports a slide holding the specimen. The slide is placed over the opening in the stage of the microscope. 4. Light Source The light source is a light bulb that provides light for viewing the image. It can be either light reflected with a mirror or an incandescent light from a small lamp. SECTION 4 OBJECTIVES ● List the function of each of the major parts of a compound light microscope. ● Compare two kinds of electron microscopes. ● Describe the importance of having the SI system of measurement. ● State some examples of good laboratory practice. VOCABULARY compound light microscope eyepiece (ocular lens) objective lens stage light source magnification nosepiece resolution scanning electron microscope transmission electron microscope metric system base unit Compound light microscopes open the human eye to an interesting world including tiny pond organisms, healthy and diseased cells, and the functioning of cell parts. FIGURE 1-13 Objective lens Eyepiece (ocular lens) Stage Light THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 21 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 22 CHAPTER 1 Magnification and Resolution Microscopes vary in powers of magnification and resolution. Magnification is the increase of an object’s apparent size. Revolving the nosepiece, the structure that holds the set of objective lens, rotates these lenses into place above the specimen. In a typical com- pound light microscope, the most powerful objective lens produces an image up to 100 times (100) the specimen’s actual size. The degree of enlargement is called the power of magnification of the lens. The standard ocular lens magnifies a specimen 10 times (10). To compute the power of magnification of a microscope, the power of magnification of the strongest objective lens (in this case, 100) is multiplied by the power of magnification of the ocular lens (10). The result is a total power of magnification of 1000. Resolution (REZ-uh-LOO-shuhn) is the power to show details clearly in an image. The physical properties of light limit the ability of light microscopes to resolve images, as shown in Figure 1-14a. At pow- ers of magnification beyond about 2,000, the image of the speci- men becomes fuzzy. For this reason, scientists use other microscopes to view very small cellsEarlier in 2019 there was a lot of femicide uh girls being killed by their boyfriends because they did one or two things there are also cultures of if there is violence in terms of a marital relationship that that is fine if there's a marital rape that that is fine so you find such situations being normalized and it being also a taboo to speak about those issues the 2030 agenda for sustainable development is grounded in respect for human rights and the power of people to change the world every individual on the planet has the right to health and well-being in all aspects of their sexuality their body and their reproductive choices ensuring these rights is integral to addressing poverty education violence against women and gender equality sexual and reproductive health rights are agreed in international law they were fought for by courageous women's rights activists and advocates across a broad range of professional fields and frontline experiences by movements of all ages levels and backgrounds they are still being fought for while progress has been made globally many barriers remain especially for those most marginalized excluded or discriminated against human rights are central to delivering the 17 sustainable development goals in the sustainable development agenda indeed each sdg target is simultaneously a metric and a claim for human rights the interplay between these political commitments and human rights obligations is particularly important when it comes to achieving sexual and reproductive health rights for decades human rights-based tactics have been used to drive progress in this episode of right to a better world experts share challenges they have faced and tactics they have used to address them the challenges they describe occur in settings all around the world the strategies used are ones that they have found to be successful in their own settings viewers are encouraged to learn from these experiences and consider how tactics could be adapted to their own context when sexual and reproductive health begins with equality the discussions decisions programs and policies which follow can build towards a future where every individual is not only born free but lives free and equal in dignity and rights without violence or discrimination the time to take action is now violence against women is any act that results in or is likely to result in physical sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women this includes threats of such acts coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty in public or private life it happens everywhere in every country in the home in communities at work and at school crises including health and humanitarian crises frequently contribute to higher rates of violence against women violence against women is directed at women because of their status as women the consequences are dire jeopardizing women's health including sexual and reproductive health and mental health hampering their ability to participate fully in society causing tremendous physical and psychological suffering for both women and their children the majority of women survivors of violence do not disclose or seek any type of services efforts to address violence against women must recognize the many different contexts in which it occurs and the many different forms it can take the majority of violence against women is committed by an intimate partner her current or previous boyfriend or husband globally around 30 of women have experienced physical and or sexual violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime this increases the risk of acquiring an sti or in some regions hiv by 1.5 fold when a woman is experiencing violence especially from her partner she's really unable to keep safe from hiv men have power to decide how when and where sex should be done and the woman is at risk of being infected because she cannot say no schools are another setting where violence against girls can take place assault and harassment during their commute bullying sexual harassment and mental or physical abuse on school property are all challenges across various country contexts this has a direct impact on girls access to inclusive quality education a target of sdg4 and an indirect impact on many of their other human rights young girls are taking advantage of at a very young age and they do not understand the choices and the avenues whereby they can exercise their rights when it comes to sexual productive health and rights and so you find a lot of dropouts and a lot of girls also going through a lot of traumatic experiences that would be avoided if they had guidance promoting a safe and secure working environment for all is a cornerstone of sdg 8. this includes a workplace free from sexual harassment and violence but for many women especially women migrant workers and others in precarious employment this is far from reality so we went to naivasha which is a flower farm and we've met the informal workers the casual liberals working for the flower farms when for example the sexual violence cases are reported companies don't take them very seriously a wide range of tactics have been used to prevent and address violence against women and girls and to recognize it as a fundamental violation of human rights prevention of intimate partner violence is possible when interventions are informed by evidence of what works we started out by describing the problem we've now moved to research on what works what are the kinds of interventions that are successful both for preventing the problem from happening in the first place and also from interventions to respond the respect women framework on preventing violence against women developed by the who un women ohchr and other international agencies promotes seven strategies which focus on relationship skills strengthening empowerment of women services for health justice police and social sector poverty reduction environments made safer including schools workplaces and public spaces child and adolescence abuse prevented and transformation of gender attitudes beliefs and norms this action-oriented framework can enable policy makers and health implementers to design plan implement monitor and evaluate interventions and programs to prevent violence against women we have come a long way for sure we still have some ways to go and we need to do more to stop this violence from happening in the first place this involves addressing the social norms that still prevail in many settings that make this form of violence acceptable women are not exposed to gender-based violence by accident all because of an inbuilt vulnerability violence against women is rooted in discriminatory social norms and power dynamics dismantling these underlying causes of violence against women and girls is at the heart of achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls as set out in the targets and indicators of sdg 5 ensuring healthy lives in sdg3 and reducing inequalities in sdg 10. women and men are valued differently society has heap privileges on the men while the women are looked at as subordinate power is not only the problem but also the solution to preventing violence against women we are making it personal everyone connects with power every day people living with power or grappling with power they find themselves within this whole conversation if you're working to create gnome change there has to be change at all levels strategies to raise awareness in communities about violence against women and girls are critical as there is still a lot of stigma and shame which inhibits many women and girls from talking about it intervention is like a big complicated word sometimes it's just about talking about dialogue i mean the fact that we went into schools and just began a conversation with parents um bringing them together in the school along with the school personnel and then having the conversation start from there and we also sort of train providers within schools to appropriately refer children to health facilities for care what we found was that this dialogue began to spark other conversations in the community and i guess they just felt that oh it's actually okay to talk about this openly rather than pretend that nothing is going on sassa is a community mobilization approach to prevent violence against women and hiv and aids it is activist led it's not workshop heavy based it comes away from the traditional programming of organizations going to do things themselves instead they support activists who do the activities with their friends and neighbors health systems play a critical role in responding to violence wherever it occurs supporting health workers to respond appropriately to violence as well as ensuring their work environment enables them to provide safe effective and quality survivor centred care are important strategies for better addressing violence against women and girls um we came to learn not to ask direct questions not to give our opinion or our judgment on them and let her speak and once with that flow starts once that connection is established that doctor-patient relationship emotionally is established she will actually tell you the whole history legal frameworks to promote enforce and monitor equality and non-discrimination on the basis of sex are an important sdg 5 indicator but putting laws in place does not automatically make them effective there are existing protections for women in the workplace or for individuals in the workplace in relation to harassment but we know from our call for evidence that they are not actually addressing the problem the recommendations that we developed included government implementing a mandatory duty for employers to take preventative steps to address harassment in the workplace so what we would like to see is government implement a much stronger legislative duty it has taken decades of struggle by the women's rights movement to persuade the international community to view violence against women as a human rights concern and a sustainable development priority not a private matter governments have obligations to respect protect and fulfill the right to a life free of violence and to provide for sanctions when they fail when seeking accountability the priority consideration must always be the safety and well-being of survivors respecting their wishes and autonomy and supporting them to make informed choices about the type of justice they want context is vitally important there are many strategies to hold perpetrators accountable including strategic litigation and public campaigns when the teachers impregnate the girls that means the system has failed and okay what they do is they blacklist the teachers and they are always removed from the payroll but we think that is not enough the case that was quite interesting is where one of the judges she did find a ruling against the teacher service commission the commission that is responsible for hiring teachers asking them that they must take responsibility and they were ordered to pay compensation to the girls who had gotten pregnant while in school the justice police issue came about a few years back when a young girl was raped and the punishment for her being ripped was that harappa she was gang-ripped and therapists were told to slash grass feminist organizations and young women organizations came back to the police and the police commissioner to ask and request that the people who are found to be perpetrators should be punished according to our constitution and according to the laws of the land and those are very big campaigns to get better justice so consequently they were jailed but also it was a sign that the system the police system had to be checked in terms of when someone reports a case any case of violence what happens and how is it followed through the maria pedra is another example of litigation that became a political mobilizer so this was a case from the inter-american commission that really galvanized a change in public policy a huge change because it was a case that addressed gender-based violence intimate partner violence it called on responsibility of brazil also for not having prevented this kind of violence the reality of a case that says you have the right to not be bruised you have the right to be free of physical psychological violence it's powerful it can change women's lives investing in autonomous women's movements has been one of the most important drivers of changes in laws and policies to address violence against women over the past 40 years according to data from over 70 countries women organizing to advance women's status define the very concept of violence against women raised awareness of the issue and put it on national and global policy agendas often we thought that it takes generations or centuries to change working intensely with the communities we can actually see change coming violence against women and girls is a violation of fundamental human rights to life and to physical and psychological integrity not to be tortured or treated in an inhuman and degrading way to respect for private and family life and the right not to be discriminated against this understanding is more than theoretical human rights-based tactics can offer a practical route to addressing systemic challenges across all the circumstances where violence against women and girls occurs including but not limited to at the hands of their partners at school and in the workplace by using evidence-informed prevention strategies addressing power relations and social norms community mobilizing and dialogue supporting health systems and professionals putting in place strong legal frameworks accessing justice and ending impunity feminist organizing and mobilizing every individual can help to deliver the 2030 agenda for sustainable development building a world in which women and girls are free from all forms of violence and discrimination [Music] youGiulio cesare nacque nel centro avanti cristo e morì nel senso che fu ucciso nel 44 avanti cristo in una vita relativamente breve 56 anni che si colloca nel momento di passaggio drammatico da un sistema politico ad un altro dall'ordinamento tradizionale della città stato di roma ad un tipo di potere personale fortemente personale quindi la vita è di cesare proprio nel cuore di questo periodo quando affiora alla adolescenza all'uso della ragione egli è già un personaggio un personaggio malvisto perché si è legato per ragioni familiari tradizionali di schieramento anche politico alla famiglia di cinna fedele alleato e seguace di caio mario quindi sotto la dittatura di sila sicuramente un nemico ed e noi abbiamo su di lui varie biografie ma un elemento che ricorre in queste biografie e che silla uomo indubbiamente di grande capacità politica di grande intuito e di grande ferocia era convinto che andasse eliminato questo giovanotto perché pericoloso perché è talmente in gamba lo si vedeva già da giovanissimo da costituire un pericolo per l'ordinamento che sigla aveva instaurato secondo la tradizione roma viene fondata nel 753 avanti cristo da romolo che diventa anche il primo re della città per oltre due secoli roma è retta da una monarchia fino a quando tarquinio il superbo il settimo e ultimo re viene cacciato e viene instaurata la repubblica l'ordinamento repubblicano rimarrà in vigore per quasi cinque secoli durante i quali i romani porranno le basi del loro imponente impero la prima fase di questa espansione è dedicata alla conquista della penisola italiana tra il iii e il ii secolo avanti cristo roma allarga il proprio dominio su tutto il bacino del mediterraneo giungendo fino all'asia minore a farne le spese sono i cartaginesi di annibale ambientati nel corso delle tre guerre puniche e i macedoni la cui sconfitta segna la fine della potenza greca in questo lungo periodo lo stato romano si trova ad affrontare numerosi conflitti interni le lotte tra patrizi e plebei le rivolte popolari i durissimi scontri tra fazioni avverse tra il 133 121 i tribuni della plebe tiberio e gaio gracco propongono alcune riforme agrarie che mirano a una ridistribuzione delle terre in favore dei piccoli proprietari osteggiate da gli strati sociali più ricchi le riforme dei due fratelli vengono abolite ma segnano l'inizio di un lunghissimo periodo di scontri interni noto col nome di guerre civili che dura esattamente un secolo quando nasce cesare nel 100 avanti cristo la repubblica romana sta vivendo perciò una profonda crisi che ne mina le fondamenta al principio del primo secolo esplode un'insurrezione nelle province italiane i cui abitanti chiedono maggiori diritti è la cosiddetta guerra sociale repressa duramente dall'esercito romano capeggiato dal generale lucio cornelio silla silla sarà protagonista anche di una guerra civile che vede contrapposta la passione degli optimates gli aristocratici difensori dello status quo e i popularis i nobili favorevoli al cambiamento istituzionale il sanguinoso scontro vedrà la vittoria degli optimates di silla che nell 82 viene nominato dittatore con il compito di tentare una difficile pacificazione politica sia stato il trionfatore di una guerra civile ferocissima contro i mariani seguaci di caio mario ci dice in maniera sommaria e grossomodo ha un senso che capeggia uno schieramento conservatore sorretto da gli optimates e contrasta uno schieramento popularis di cui mario è l'uomo simbolo alla fine silla trionfare in questo conflitto i suoi avversari vengono fisicamente liquidati e la sua dittatura la dittatura esiste nell'ordinamento romano ma a termine cioè non può essere una carica vitalizia la sua dittatura stabilisce un un riordino un nuovo ordine della repubblica romana quindi si crea una situazione paradossale il potere personale fortissimo riordino dell'ordinamento tradizionale è fatta quest'opera di riordino costituzionale abbandono del potere si la compie un gesto indubbiamente straordinario a suo modo le ragioni per cui l'ha compiuto sono molteplici lascia la dittatura abbandona questo potere lo dismette per assistere da vecchio ormai morirà nell'anno 78 quindi poco dopo l'abbandono realizza tour a 78 avanti cristo per assistere al funzionamento del riordino che egli stesso aveva creato illusione ottica perché nell'anno 70 quindi appena pochi anni dopo cesare nel frattempo ha raggiunto i 30 anni i due consoli dell'anno 70 che sono niente meno che marco licinio crasso l'uomo più ricco di roma e che neo pompeo figlio di pompeo strabone pur rappresentando sostanzialmente forze sociali e politiche che consiglia erano state strettamente alleate abrogano l'ordinamento silano quindi con l'anno 70 si determinano una alleanza saldissima parrebbe dei due più potenti personaggi che sono sulla scena della politica romana un'alleanza personale politica e istituzionale attraverso la copertura del consolato che sembra stabilire un ritorno all ordinamento repubblicano tradizionale ivi compresa la restituzione ai tribuni della plebe delle loro importanti prerogative al tempo di giulio cesare la repubblica romana a oltre 400 anni di vita un lungo periodo durante il quale ha sviluppato un efficace organizzazione amministrativa l'esercizio del potere si fonda sulla suddivisione dei compiti tra il senato le assemblee popolari e i funzionari pubblici i cosiddetti magistrati il senato è l'istituzione che prende le decisioni più importanti in politica interna ed estera le assemblee popolari rappresentano l'elemento democratico della repubblica vi partecipano tutti i cittadini romani liberi escluse le donne e hanno come compito principale l'elezione dei magistrati i magistrati costituiscono il cardine della vita quotidiana ad essi infatti è affidata la gestione concreta dello stato ci sono innanzitutto i questori che si occupano delle finanze dell'erario gli edili che sovrintendono ai lavori pubblici al controllo dei prezzi e all'organizzazione dei giochi e i pretori a cui è demandata l'amministrazione della giustizia una figura di grande responsabilità è quella del tribuno della plebe istituita in seguito agli aspri conflitti sociali dei primi anni della repubblica i tribuni della plebe tutelano i diritti delle classi popolari e sono considerati sacri e inviolabili tra i magistrati la massima carica è quella dei consoli coloro che detengono il governo della città i consoli sono due esercitano il potere esecutivo e militare convocano e presiedono al senato comandano l'esercito in caso di guerra tutti questi incarichi hanno la durata di un anno e vengono ricoperti collegialmente una maniera questa per evitare le possibili tendenze dispotiche o monarchiche solo in caso di grave pericolo viene eletto il dittatore un governatore straordinario che assume in sé tutti i poteri fino alla conclusione dello stato di emergenza questa carica comunque può durare al massimo sei mesi vi è infine una carica religiosa che riveste un ruolo determinante nella vita di roma è il pontefice massimo che vigila sull'ortodossia del culto e presenzia alle manifestazioni pubbliche più importanti una figura influente anche dal punto di vista politico come comprende acutamente giulio cesare che per aiutare la sua scalata al potere riuscirà ad ottenere il pontificato nel 63 avanti cristo che accade nel frattempo del non più giovanissimo cesare caio giulio cesare appartiene a una famiglia la famiglia giulia di antichissima 1 bildt a patrizia però una famiglia economicamente non florida difficoltà economiche da un po di tempo non ci sono in famiglia personalità che hanno ricoperto il consolato che la carica più alta e più potente della repubblica quindi è un personaggio indubbiamente ragguardevole con una straordinaria capacità politica letteraria di influenza di clientele eccetera ma in difficoltà sicuramente di troppo rispetto ad una scena in cui ben due potentati si sono fatti avanti e per ora vanno d'accordo ma potrebbero prima o poi collidere il celebre aneddoto di cesare che quando è pro magistrato in spagna dice all'età mia alessandro magno aveva già conquistato il mondo e io per ora non ho ancora fatto lunedì memorabile è un aneddoto probabilmente verifico che però indica in maniera molto efficace il disagio in cui quest'uomo è venuto a trovarsi dando per assodato che l'aspirazione al primato ad una posizione di primato nella repubblica è per lui un dato acquisito dato dal quale non può prescindere quindi assistiamo riconsideriamo quanto abbiamo detto fino a ora ad un fenomeno significativo è a suo modo allarmante dentro l'ordinamento costituzionale repubblicano alternanza delle magistrature il ruolo egemonico del senato eccetera ci sono però figure tali vitale spicco e di tale ambizione che puntano ad avere una posizione egemonica le due cose non vanno senz'altro d'accordo e non è una storia recente soltanto è perché già nel secolo precedente alla fine del terzo e tutto il secondo avanti cristo c'era stata un'altra grande famiglia quella degli scipioni che aveva avuto grandi meriti naturalmente nell'espansione imperiale di roma nel mediterraneo basti pensare al vittoria contro annibale e poi la conquista durissima della spagna e poi le guerre verso la parte orientale del mediterraneo insomma una famiglia che ha contato moltissimo dell'espansione imperiale è però ingombra un po tanto nella repubblica quindi già con gli scipioni si è determinato questo attrito fra aspirazioni personali molto forti di famiglie che contano anche per la ricchezza anche per le clientele anche per il prestigio militare e l'ordinamento senatorio il senato è un organo collettivo senatori non possono essere un numero infinito e quindi appartenere a questa élite dominanti di gente che ha grande carriera alle spalle che ha grandi ricchezze alle spalle appartenere a questo collegio significa guidare la repubblica collegialmente ecco perché l'attrito con le figure emergenti che debordano rispetto ai limiti ordinati dalla costituzione ecco l'attrito come si determina e dopo l'esperienza silana dopo il gesto di silva di lasciare la dittatura e vedere come funziona il sistema ecco nuove grandi figure sulla scena cesare desidera di essere una di esse è la sua direttiva non fu chiarissima dall'inizio e è vero apparteneva per legami familiari all'ambiente mariano l'ambiente di cina però come ebbe poi a dire avrebbe potuto anche scegliere un orientamento diverso quindi rappresenta questo è molto interessante per noi che cerchiamo di capire la politica romana fuori degli schemi rappresenta la tipica figura che sceglie la parte con cui schierarsi in funzione della propria carriera della propria egemonia dove può avere una base sufficientemente forte per affermarsi li crea i suoi legami politici il senato è sicuramente è l'organo di governo principale dell'antica roma la sua creazione è attribuita allo stesso romolo e in origine designava l'assemblea degli anziani il nome senato infatti deriva dal latino seneca che significa appunto vecchio anziano in un primo tempo solo i patrizi ovvero l'elite aristocratica romana potevano accedere a questa carica in seguito la missione verrà allargata a tutti i cittadini più ricchi anche il numero di senatori subirà un sensibile aumento passando dai cento delle origini fino ai 900 del periodo di giulio cesare il requisito fondamentale per entrare in senato è l'aver esercitato una magistratura cioè una carica pubblica ma occorre anche l'approvazione dei censori sono infatti questi funzionari deputati al controllo della condotta civica a stilare ogni cinque anni la lista ufficiale dei membri del senato è nella fase repubblicana che il senato diventa il fulcro della vita pubblica assumendo di fatto il controllo dello stato e della sua stabilità i suoi compiti vanno dal controllo delle cariche pubbliche alla discussione dei progetti di legge dalla gestione finanziaria alla disciplina del culto religioso anche l'attività militare e la politica estera sono sotto la sua autorità i senatori organizzano le operazioni belliche stipulano gli accordi di pace e ratificano le dichiarazioni di guerra durante le guerre civili del primo secolo avanti cristo il senato perde il ruolo di garante dell'unita e della concordia politica da espressione degli interessi comuni diventerà un baluardo della fazione conservatrice gli optimates segnando così il proprio declino e quello della repubblica qual è lo scenario sociale in cui queste figure si muovono ormai è uno scenario profondamente modificato rispetto alla città stato dei tempi degli scipioni da una parte c'è stato un fenomeno di dilatazione geografica del concetto città di roma noi pensiamo a roma come a una città stato come in origine essa è effettivamente ma con la gestione e sapiente della cittadinanza della dell'allargamento della cittadinanza roma lentamente si dilata cittadinanza romana cittadinanza di diritto latino poi il lazio assume la cittadinanza romana gli italici che sono stati conquistati con guerre durissime con cui roma ha lentamente conquistato la penisola premono per avere la cittadinanza anch'essi i greci avevano posto la questione il tribuno druso l'aveva anche drammaticamente riproposta e ci aveva lasciato la vita sila ha sconfitto sul campo gli italici però al termine della guerra sociale nell 88 la cittadinanza romana è stata concessa a tutti gli italici a sud del po quindi roma è l'italia a sud del po fino alla punta estrema quando si devono fare le elezioni politiche le chiamiamo così si eleggono i magistrati più importanti consoli di edili i pretori si va a votare a roma ed a tutti i vari municipi d'italia ci si muove a proprie spese insediandosi temporaneamente nella capitale per esercitare il diritto di voto conquistare il consenso di questo grande elettorato non è un problema da poco la plebe urbana di roma però conta moltissimo mentre gli italici possono decidere di non scomodarsi ogni volta a venire a votare a roma la plebe urbana come viene chiamata base sociale dei capi populares sta lì e vive sostanzialmente con sussidi elargizioni di grano feste insomma non è che sia un ceto particolarmente produttivo è un ceto abbastanza parassitario che pesa moltissimo proprio come una massa critica addosso alle istituzioni anche potremmo dire addosso al senato allearsi con la plebe urbana significa avere una massa di manovra elettorale molto importante da mettere a frutto magari anche con fortissimo intervento economico le elezioni costano moltissimo a roma è un modello che si è protratto nei millenni questo è il quadro diciamo così politico elettorale poi c'è un altro elemento c'è un altro elemento del quale cesare capisce presto l'importanza studiando il suo futuro avversario ma per ora interlocutore più forte cioè pompeo quest altro elemento sono le legioni la massa militare a massa militare è costituita da dei cittadini che chiamati alle armi ci restano per anni e anni un servizio che dura moltissimo che diventano gli interlocutori diretti dei capi militari i capi militari che li portano alla conquista per esempio il caso di pompeo dell'oriente il favoloso oriente che sia aperto a roma grazie a questo grande capo militare per ciò detto pompeo magno le legioni vedono questi capi in particolare nel caso di pompeo il loro interlocutore diretto quello che con terminologia moderna giustamente famosa potremmo chiamare il capo carismatico la mediazione politica conta di meno per loro conta il rapporto diretto con il capo questa massa militare che è fatta di cittadini soldati naturalmente diventa col tempo sempre più importante rispetto alla plebe urbana più o meno parassitaria che sta nella capitale ed è la massa di manovra elettorale usata spregiudicatamente da dalle varie parti politiche ma tendenzialmente legata ai populares e che vede in alcuni dei tribuni della plebe i propri naturali rappresentanti cesare capisce presto che accanto alla consuetudine alla routine elettorale in cui è bravissimo straordinariamente capace c'è poi quell altro soggetto quello della massa militare con cui stabilire un contatto tale da creare una propria autonoma forza all'interno dello scontro politico e quindi quando si reca in spagna da pro magistrato dopo aver ricoperto la pretura lui cercherà di stabilire questo rapporto con le truppe che gli saranno affidate che sono poca cosa rispetto alle legioni pompeiane naturalmente ma anche cerca di stabilire dei contatti di carattere clientelare cioè con le élite locali ciò che pompeo aveva saputo fare magnificamente il suo colpo di genio potremmo dire quando si trova in una posizione minore rispetto ai due potentati crasso il pompeo suo colpo di genio e di puntare ad una carica l'unica carica vitalizia ma elettiva della repubblica romana che è pontefice massimo pontefice massimo viene eletto con una battaglia elettorale estremamente dura ed è tale finché non muore quindi conquistare la carica il pontefice massimo significa avere una posizione stabile nell'ordinamento cesare era considerato e certamente lo era molto vicino simpatizzante per la filosofia epicurea a roma l'epicureismo si era diffuso come li racconta cicerone nelle tuscolane in maniera straordinariamente pervasiva grazie a dei divulgatori del pensiero di epicuro che conosciamo di nome di tale si chiamava ma fini o di lui abbiamo soltanto questo cenno che fa cicerone o poco più cicerone dice hanno invaso tutta l'italia dp curerà un po allarmista ma indubbiamente era un orientamento filosofico incongruo rispetto alla centralità della politica caratteristica della repubblica romana per un personaggio che ha aspirazioni anche modeste la politica e l'attività principale è il mestiere fondamentale quindi bisogna avere anche quattrini una base economica legami quella è il mestiere quello è il mestiere di un vero cittadino romano è la l'epicureismo suggerisce di tenersi lontano dalla politica di non impegnarsi vivi nascosto il celebre motto attribuito ad epicuro e oltre a ciò ritiene che gli dei probabilmente esistono anzi ci saranno certamente da qualche parte ma si disinteressano delle cose umane la vicenda umana e un fluire di atomi materialisticamente aggregati disgregati l'anima è essa stessa mortale lui se c'è una filosofia che è lontana dal mestiere di cittadino ed al mestiere di pontefice massimo è certamente l'epicureismo per cui è interessante osservare questa sorta di scissione nella persona per cui il cesare intellettuale raffinatissimo forse il più grande scrittore di lingua latina che sia mai stato e di simpatia e figure e e al tempo stesso in quanto votato alla politica ha votato a contare nella repubblica possibilmente in una posizione egemonica egli e politico di mestiere e pontefici massimo poteva fermarsi per la più alta carica religiosa che non è soltanto strettamente religiosa perché il pontefice massimo come sappiamo da tantissime testimonianze episodi eccetera può paralizzare la vita politica può mettere dei veti fondamentali rispetto all'attività dei consoli ha un peso estremamente significativo direttamente politico quando egli si presentò alle elezioni per il pontificato massimo raccontano le biografie su e si congedò da sua madre dicendo o torno pontefice o torno in galera nel senso che si era talmente indebitato per la campagna elettorale da doversi poi difendere da accuse gravi per debiti non pagati vinse le elezioni d'altra parte le elezioni si vincono a tavolino prima di farle per cui egli aveva molte carte nelle sue mani c'è un romanzo bellissimo purtroppo incompiuto di uberto express three gli affari del signor giulio cesare che racconta molto da vicino e senza peli sulla lingua esattamente questo aspetto della figura di cesare all'opera come politico l'epicureismo è una delle grandi scuole filosofiche dell'età ellenistica nasce in grecia verso la fine del iv secolo avanti cristo pochi anni dopo la morte di alessandro magno secondo il suo fondatore epicuro di samo la filosofia ha come unico scopo liberare l'uomo dai suoi mali e condurlo verso la felicità [Musica] per raggiungere questo obiettivo è necessario sconfiggere le quattro grandi paure che affliggono l'animo umano la paura degli dei della morte del dolore e dell'infelicità la medicina di epicuro il cosiddetto quadri farmaco è basata su una concezione materialista dell'universo in cui le divinità sono indifferenti alle vicende terrene il timore della morte è irrazionale e la felicità è semplicemente la mancanza di dolore il compito dell'uomo saggio è giungere a una condizione di serenità detta atarassia in cui vi è assenza di ogni turbamento un atteggiamento che si traduce in un'esistenza appartata lontana dalle forti passioni ed alla partecipazione politica [Musica] questa visione individualistica e isolata della vita non sembra in armonia con gli ideali della roma repubblicana nella quale l'impegno politico e l'interesse comune sono tenuti in grande considerazione tuttavia nel corso del primo secolo avanti cristo il pensiero epicureo si diffonde con successo nella capitale ciò avviene grazie all'opera di alcuni studiosi greci seguaci di epicuro che si trasferiscono in italia portando con loro le idee del maestro l'affermazione delle pitture ismo si deve soprattutto all'opera di lucrezio il suo poema de rerum natura traduce in raffinati versi il pensiero del filosofo greco e costituisce il punto più alto della scuola epicurea latina cosa accade quando lui è pontefice massimo e pretore designato anno 63 ormai avanti cristo sono passati vari anni come vediamo dall'anno 70 in cui crasso il pompeo sono i padroni della repubblica nell'anno 63 e console marco tullio cicerone suo collega si chiama antonio non è ovviamente il futuro trio come è riuscito cicerone a farsi eleggere in una campagna elettorale combattutissima appoggiato da uno schieramento di optimates è riuscito contro lucio sergio catilina catilina e un nobile decaduto che ha in mente qualcosa che potrebbero assomigliare a una rivoluzione degli ordinamenti politico sociali romani di lui sappiamo quello che ci dicono i suoi nemici i suoi avversari sappiamo quello che dice cicerone nelle catilinarie per l'appunto che sono conservate l'idea che ci si può fare di questo personaggio finito tragicamente come diremo è che metteva insieme i resti di una serie di esperimenti falliti un po di avanzi di legionari sillani scontenti avanzi della guerra sociale reduci da campagne persino di quelle connesse alla guerra contro spartaco come suoi seguaci diciamo così retro scenici ma naturalmente il suo impegno era vincere le elezioni diventare console dopo un primo insuccesso egli si attrezza meglio e nell'anno 64 si vota per eleggere i consoli dell'anno 63 la sua candidatura è molto forte dietro le quinte è probabile che lo appoggiasse anche crasso anche cesare poi essere ha fatto scrivere in lungo in largo che lui con la congiura non c'entrava per nulla però prima del fallimento della congiura uno si chiede sempre potrebbe vincere quindi non è male restare da quella parte siccome è pericoloso come candidato e gli italici sono venuti in massa a votare per lui gli auguri ruolo religioso importantissimo subordinato a quello di pontefice massimo fanno sapere che gli auspici non sono favorevoli quindi non si può votare quindi tu questi italici se ne tornano nelle loro sedi le lezioni sono rinviate e quando si vota da capo non c'è più questa massa di sostenitori pronta a rifare il viaggio per venire a roma a votare per caterina cicerone vince caterina e sconfitto ancora una volta quando ormai era convinto di farcela e a quel punto secondo le narrazioni a noi giunte concepisce una presa del potere per via violenta rivoluzionaria creandosi delle alleanze retroscena che anche cerca di allearsi con dei galli che poi lo tradiranno ammazzare i consoli in carica ammazzando i consoli in carica si decapita lo stato a repubblica è in quel disordine si prende il potere grosso modo questo è il suo disegno questo disegno fallisce cicerone verso la fine dell'anno 63 alle prove abilmente catturate della congiura aggredisce in senato ex abrupto catilina con la famosa prima catilinaria pronunciata di getto con un oratorio irruenta efficacissima in parte riprodotta in quella che noi chiamiamo la prima catilinaria da lui ovviamente riscritta dopo porterà in tour e avendo le prove di questo reato gravissimo che è stato concepito e stava per essere perpetrato ha avuto l'accortezza di emettere guardie davanti a casa sua per impedire che l'attentato nei suoi confronti venisse attuato avendo le prove in mano porta davanti al senato l'accusa di eversione e la proposta di esecuzione immediata dei congiurati cioè senato siede in quel momento in una funzione giudiziaria cosa rarissima dinanzi all'alto tradimento che è appunto la uccisione dei magistrati più importanti della repubblica questa procedura può avere un senso e id i pareri sono divisi noi abbiamo notizie di questo drammatico dibattito che si è svolto in senato in cui cesare è intervenuto in cui è intervenuto catone un po più giovane di cesare di età interviene cicerone stesso è la proposta di esecuzione capitale immediata sta per essere approvata a cesare si oppone si oppone e del pontefice massimo mentre parla in senato contro le esecuzioni capitali dei cattivi nari e ha svolto una tesi piuttosto originale che cioè visto che probabilmente l'anima immortale come alcuni ritengono quella eco della sua adesione diciamo così filosofica l'epicureismo uccidere e meno punitivo che mettere in carcere a vita e quindi teniamo lì in vita perché così veramente li puniamo e sta per ottenere il consenso con questa formulazione non perché ci fosse una setta epicurea diffusa ma perché arretrare dinanzi a un passo così grave tutto sommato attrae la maggioranza dei senatori interviene a quel punto catone con un discorso fortissimo sprezzante nei confronti di cesare dei confronti dei senatori che sono titubanti la maggioranza approva l'esecuzione capitale e per ordine del console in carica i congiurati vengono strangolati nel carcere mamertino e cicerone dall'annuncio al popolo con la famosa espressione vix erunt sono morti erano vivi lavoro sono morti cesare n'è uscito con qualche ammaccatura da questa vicenda crasso non ha problemi perché classe l'uomo più ricco di roma tutti sanno che ha flirtato con i catilinari ma nessuno mai oserebbe toccarlo pompeo fuori del pomerio cia le sue legioni che vogliono i premi adeguati per essere stati i conquistatori dell'oriente cicerone trionfa cile non è il salvatore della patria e daccapo acclamato pater patrie secondo romolo ha rifondato roma se un po montato la testa perché naturalmente capeggiava uno schieramento non avere tutto merito suo uno schieramento che ha ritenuto che schiacciando catilina si dava un colpo mortale ai populares e quindi allo stesso cesare fosse o meno coinvolto nella congiura lui una situazione termina di lì a poco con la battaglia di pistoia perché catilina è fuggito da roma con i suoi seguaci e l'altro console antonio lo ha affrontato sul campo di battaglia a pistoia sono stati ammazzati tutti catilina muore in battaglia dopo questa vicenda si può dire la parte degli orti mates si considera al sicuro sorpresa nell'anno 60 quindi siamo a ridosso 62 si è svolta la battaglia di pistoia nell'anno 60 pompeo insoddisfatto di come il senato non dà soddisfazione alle sue legioni crasso desideroso di mettersi al sicuro dopo la rischiosa parte che ha giocato nella vicenda catilinaria cesare che tutto sommato ha avuto un ruolo protagonistico nella battaglia in senato si mettono d'accordo privatamente quindi è un patto privato chiamato volgarmente primo triunvirato e stabiliscono di allearsi anziché farsi la guerra il primo triunvirato cosiddetto patto privato tra tre potentati nell'anno 60 decide quali saranno i consoli dell'anno prossimo come sarà gestito il potere quali province saranno date ai contraenti quali leggi e consoni eletti faranno passare uno potrebbe dire ma prima delle elezioni già si sa come andrà a finire già si sa come era finita nel senso che è la forza diciamo suadente della manipolazione del consenso è un fatto centrale nella repubblica ormai potremmo dire agonizzante e viene eletto cesare consone per il 59 suo collega perché non si può avere tutti e due i posti e marco calpurnio bibulo uomo legatissimo a gli ottimati un po ottuso essere un genio non solo politico ma anche intellettualmente versatile più diversi campi bibulo è un vecchio signore tradizionalista abituato a dire no ogni volta che i popolare si dicono sì piume quindi una convivenza difficile il compito di cesare la console è innanzitutto di varare delle leggi leggi agrarie che favoriranno i veterani di pompeo con assegnazioni di terre deducendo colonie di veterani pompeiani è un'operazione di destra o di sinistra nel popolare o ultimate è un'operazione a favore del grande soggetto sociale che sono le regioni cioè se lei ha capito benissimo che è quello l'interlocutore contro la sua legislazione agraria bibulo mette il veto cioè si crea una situazione paradossale dal punto di vista costituzionale cioè un console mette il veto all'attività dell'altro console come sappiamo chi con soli sono due perché devono agire collegialmente no quando fu istituito il consolato alla fine della monarchia cacciato tarquinio si disse lo racconta tito livio efficacemente che il potere dei consoli era analogo a quello dei re però durava un anno soltanto e perché fosse minore il peso erano due e quindi la collegialità delle decisioni dei due massimi magistrati è un cardine della repubblica cesare si disinteressa di questo contrasto che bibulo scatena in tutte le forme auspici negativi il diritto di veto bibulo si ritira in casa e non collabora più quasi a creare una situazione di crisi istituzionale irreparabile cioè sarebbe avanti lo stesso quindi il consolato di cesare l'anno 59 è già ai limiti della legalità se non oltre la legalità ma alle spalle c'è l'appoggio degli altri due i quali hanno un soggetto potentissimo dietro di sé cioè le regioni e quindi senato abbozza come si suol dire deve accettare una situazione di paradosso costituzionale e istituzionale ai limiti della tollerabilità per giunta e qui essere diventa un certo senso l'uomo che vince la partita rispetto agli altri due si fa attribuire come governo provinciale per cinque anni la gallia abbiamo la gallia cisalpina alla gallia narbonese che sono già province romane è però c'è la gallia cometa cioè la gallia non ancora sotto il controllo romano che egli si propone di conquistare quindi qual è il colpo di genio che cinicamente lui mette in atto determinare una situazione di conflitto prolungato che richiede una grande massa militare per essere attuato che gli determinerà l'analogo di ciò che pompeo ha avuto nella sua lunghissima carriera di conquistatore a oriente e deve creare il casus belli quindi entra in scena potremmo dire come pro magistrato delle gallie col proposito di determinare un conflitto per prolungare una guerra durissima con le tribù galli che ed estendere la presenza romana sull'intera gallia anche quella cometa anche quella belgica che appunto di fronte alle isole britanniche noi abbiamo un libro straordinario dei più bei libri della letteratura latina cioè de bello gallico che tempo si leggeva a scuola nelle scuole medie inferiori senza apprezzarne l'importanza e rilievo la lingua raffinata e soprattutto la falsità potrebbero dire la falsità nel senso del carattere spiccatamente propagandistico dalla prima all'ultima pagina di quest'opera che mira sostanzialmente a convincere l'elite dirigente che legge della necessità di quel conflitto delle ragioni di esso della giustezza della condotta bellica di cesare e quindi è un'arma così come lo sono le legioni come nascono questi commentari de bello gallico sono lo sviluppo letterario delle relazioni al senato che in quanto pro magistrato e gli invia regolarmente per spiegare i successi che via via sta conseguendo e chiedendo a ridosso le suppliche azione cioè delle solenni forme di riconoscimento da parte del senato dei successi che lui ha ottenuto si ricorda spesso il fatto che gli eletti sono stati all'inizio lo strumento dello scatenamento di questa guerra meno si ricorda il fatto che l'operazione ha comportato vere e proprie forme di genocidio popolazioni centinaia di migliaia di persone sono state massacrate gli usi petite teri al punto tale da determinare a roma una reazione contro cesare da parte dei suoi avversari quel personaggio abbiamo ricordato prima catone che continua la sua azione di contrasto rispetto ai tre e in particolare rispetto cesare buone davanti al senato la questione bisogna consegnare cesare ai galli come criminale perché ha commesso un ingiustificabile genocidio che determina anche una conflittualità sempre più aspra è un'immagine della repubblica romana tutt'altro che limpida è una richiesta estrema che non passa in senato però un campanello d'allarme i cinque anni trascorrono nel frattempo i rapporti tra i tre si deteriorano c'è stato un patto che poteva entrare in crisi questo patto viene rinnovato negli anno 55 59 era console cesare il 58 è andato in gallia come pro magistrato come proconsole 55 si riuniscono a lucca cesare e pompeo e crasso e rinnovano il patto il patto di lucca comporta un alleanza familiare tra cesare e pompeo pompeo sposa la figlia di cesare l'unica figlia che lui aveva e si stabilisce che saranno da capo consoli pompeo e crasso insieme il secondo consolato di pompeo e crasso che puntualmente vengono eletti tutti e due sancisce potremmo dire il patto di lucca lo corona lo completa crasso si rende conto che non basta dominare a roma oa vere ricchezze sterminate bisogna avere anche un potere militare e mentre pompeo ha già fatto la sua parte il conquistatore dell'oriente cesare sta facendo del suo meglio in gallia e gli si fa attribuire come pro magistratura dopo la conclusione del consolato della provincia di siria la provincia di siria era stata inventata da pompeo nell'anno 67 la dinastia dei seleucidi era finita nel nulla lui aveva conquistato senza colpo ferire antiochia era entrato a gerusalemme aveva violato il tempio cosa ragione per cui gli ebrei lo hanno sempre detestato è però la siria era l'avamposto militare della repubblica imperiale romana nei confronti di un regno l'ultimo grande legno e le nistico regno ellenistico potremmo dire cioè quello dei party che incombono sul confine orientale in particolare sulla provincia di siria per che incombono non vogliamo dilungarci su questo ma è certamente importante dire che lo strato e legni zato delle città nella provincia di siria e molto superficiale la popolazione indigena diciamo così subisce la presenza romana e guarda ai party come possibili liberatori i parti lo sanno benissimo e quindi le loro incursioni nella provincia sono spesso micidiali quindi è il punto più debole della linea difensiva romana quel confine grasso si avventura da pro magistrato in una impresa che si risolverà in una catastrofe la battaglia di carrè lui si inoltra nella mesopotamia con le legioni un suo ufficiale e quel caio cassio longino che poi ammazzerà cesare nel 44 brillante ufficiale bravissimo che si salva in questo disastro crasso viene catturato decapitato e diciamo la fine tremenda che lui fa è anche il segno potremmo dire che ormai la scena politica si riduce a due grandi rivali che sono cesare e pompeo cesare capisce benissimo che la scomparsa di crasso non gli giova perché accelera lo scontro è si avvicina al momento dello scontro sapendo di essere una posizione difficile ha rinnovato il comando galli così di è stato protratto ma per salvarsi dai suoi avversari i quali sono pronti non appena uscirà di carica a portarlo in tribunale per le malversazioni al tempo del suo primo consolato che lo vorrebbero portare in tribunale per tante altre ragioni tra l'altro quelle che catone ha portato davanti al senato per sottrarsi a questa probabilissima persecuzione giudiziaria deve farsi eleggere console la magistratura lo metterebbe al riparo e però se lascia la pro magistratura per venire a farsi la campagna elettorale a roma e vulnerabile cioè nello spazio tra l'uscita di scena come pro magistrato e l'entrata in carica eventuale come console c'è un interstizio un intervallo in cui i suoi avversari lo porteranno in tribunale e lui sa che va a finire male perché i tribunali sono funzionano con altrettanta oggettività quanto le elezioni il corpo elettorale e quindi la sua battaglia col senato attraverso una trattativa che conosciamo abbastanza bene e mirante ad ottenere la possibilità ha la facoltà di farsi eleggere in assenza cioè lui sta in gallia continua a serbare la posizione di pro magistrato e si candida alle elezioni protetto dalla posizione di pro magistrato quindi chiede di essere candidato pur non essendo a roma pur non avendo deposto la carica diplomati strato esponendosi quindi al rischio che abbiamo appena detto e su questa battaglia che si arriva alla guerra civile in questa battaglia pompeo naturalmente non si sporca le mani ai suoi uomini in senato la potente famiglia dei cloud di marcelli naturalmente catone più tutta una serie di figure di secondo piano il senato è dominato dai grandi personaggi però poi ha anche le masse di manovra naturalmente e sigla il suo tempo lo aveva decimato ma poi si è riformato è un organismo duro a morire il senato e ha uno spirito di corpo fortissimo quindi quando si nel 49 cesare ci rende conto che la situazione gli è sfavorevole perché questa sua richiesta di poter essere candidato in assenza non avrà sbocchi si vede per giunta richiedere due legioni da pompeo il quale fa deliberare dal senato che gli venga affidata alla campagna contro i party per vendicare l'uccisione di crasso per riprendere la campagna partica quindi ha bisogno di legioni e quindi la campagna gallica ormai è finita ci essere riuscito a schiacciare tutte le varie rivolte vercingetorige l'assedio di alesia e quindi gli può dare due regioni cioè se ne sta al gioco gli molla due regioni quindi si trova in una posizione anche militarmente inferiore il punto di non ritorno dopo che questa estenuante trattativa è arrivata sul binario morto e all'inizio di gennaio di primi giorni di gennaio dell'anno 49 avanti cristo il senato si riunisce decide la spartizione delle province attribuisce le provincia ai magistrati dell'anno 50 cesare l'utente escluso completamente da questa operazione è caccia brutalmente antonio che in quel momento e tribuno della plebe dalla possibilità esclude completamente dalla possibilità di contestare queste decisioni del senato noi abbiamo un racconto splendido faziosissimo naturalmente ma molto efficace di questa vicenda nel primo commentario cesariano della guerra civile e un testo memorabile dove c'è se le descrive questa furia questa visita dei dirigenti dei dei leader della pars attivate mentre pompe non sta a guardare che si spartiscono le cariche il potere le legioni le regioni le province e descrivere tutto questo subito dopo aggiunge la fuga da roma dei tribuni della plebe che sono stati maltrattati fisicamente aggrediti che lui esibisce davanti alle legioni mentre sta sul confine tra la provincia della galles alpina e l'italia il comizio che lui fa mostrando alle truppe i due tribuni ancora coperti di sangue di lividi di tunica e strappate una scena di grande efficacia patetica e quindi la decisione che emerge per acclamazione e invadere l'italia il passaggio del rubicone confine tra la provincia nella gallia cisalpina e roma cioè l'italia rimini è la prima tappa a quel punto la guerra civile a inizio è scoppiata nel momento stesso in cui cesare ha violato con le sue truppe la città di roma cioè rimini la situazione che si determina è velocissima nelle sue dinamiche e anche a suo modo sconcertante la decisione che prende la parte senatoria su suggerimento di pompeo e di lasciare roma perché si immagina che la bravura tattica di cesare la velocità che ci sarà sempre avuto nei suoi spostamenti quando durante le campagne galli che è tale che in brevissimo può essere a roma e pompeo non gradisce di rifare la scena da sillana per cui la guerra civile si combatte sul suolo della città di roma e sceglie una linea che a lui sembra sicura ma in realtà è avventuristica trasportare il senato le magistrature le regioni se stesso in oriente imbarcarsi a brindisi sbarcare in epiro rafforzarsi lì e lì aspettare cesare per uno scontro militare definitivo perché lo ha fatto ma tanto perché evidentemente non riteneva agevole affrontare e cesare con le legioni di cui disponeva in quel momento in italia probabilmente in una posizione per dente o comunque problematica e poi perché era sicurissimo della sua forza in oriente dove aveva le sue clientele da sempre dove non soltanto il tessuto diciamo così militare ma anche quello clientelare delle élite locali era a suo favore senato e sconcertato naturalmente perché senato la prima volta nella storia di roma che si sposta lascia la sua sede naturale va un'altra parte della repubblica imperiale e in gran parte lo segue gran parte lo segue alcuni restano a roma a cui cicerone cicerone e angoscia tissimo cicerone ha sognato di essere l'uomo chiave in questa vicenda della guerra civile ma in realtà è stato una pedina da un certo punto in avanti è una testa politica lucidissima non ha alcuna stima di pompeo in lettere private che noi abbiamo di lui scrive chiaramente questo uomo cioè pompeo vuol fare come sigla vuol fare anche lui le sue prescrizioni quindi non è il garante della legalità repubblicana è un potentato militare che vuole fare il princeps in repubblica cioè vuole essere quello che era stato sigla e che ha sempre desiderato durante tutta la sua carriera di è chiarissimo però non si fida neanche di cesare cesare invece per parte sua loeb adulando dimostra grande considerazione gli manda lettere cesare gliele ha fatte recapitare con l'aiuto di due suoi fedelissimi occhio e balbo si chiamavano erano i suoi agente singh regole su come si diceva manutengoli fedelissimi abilissimi a roma durante i molti anni della sua assenza in gallia e occhio e balbo trasmettono questo messaggio a cicerone gli dicono senza il tuo consiglio lui non farà una mossa aspettano qui a roma perché sarà il suo consigliere cosa naturalmente inverosimile alla fine anche cicerone decide ricattato un po da amici izzy persone che gli erano sempre state vicine si decide anche lui e imbarcarsi a brindisi è unirsi al campo di pompeo cesare al seguito da grandissimo stratega qual era una linea politica militare assolutamente imprevedibile per tutti tutti si aspettavano che abboccasse corresse anche lui in epiro a combattere invece va in spagna che apparentemente una mossa sconcertante non senza essere passato da roma impadronendosi dell'erario quindi si rafforza economicamente prendendosi il tesoro dello stato si fa nominare dittatore dictator che la una carica come abbiamo detto prevista dall'ordinamento romano non c'è il console che dovrebbe nominare che cosa che se ne sono andati con pompeo allora si fa nominare il suo magistero equity comunque è dictator e come tale al diritto di mettere le mani sul denaro dello stato si reca a marsiglia e poi in spagna per liquidare le forze pompeiane che stanno lì perché lui sa benissimo e questo era il disegno di pompeo che se si imbarca brindisi sarà stretto in una tenaglia fra i pompeiani che vengono dalla spagna ai pompeiani che stanno in grecia quindi passa mesi a sistemare l'occidente dopo di che ritorna a roma si imbarca brindisi e nel momento più favorevole possibile anche dal punto di vista climatico quando nessuno si aspettava che sbarcasse sulla costa adriatica antistante a rischio anche di naufragi di danni irreparabili piomba in epiro e poi in tessaglia e lì la battaglia campale di farsalo agosto nell'anno 48 è uno dei modelli potremmo dire della sua capacità militare di capovolgere una situazione sfavorevole tale sul campo e diventa lui favorevole tanto che i morti della parte avversa sono infinitamente di più dei pochi delle sue truppe qui siamo a 4 anni dalla sua morte che avverrà il 15 marzo del 44 questi anni sono quasi per intero dedicati ad una guerra civile interminabile una lunghissima guerra civile di solito la si racconta sapendo come va a finire purtroppo nel raccontare la storia è inevitabile a questo punto di vista perché il narratore saggia l'epilogo poteva andare a finire diversamente prima tappa dagli esiti imprevedibili pompeo fugge in egitto perché sa che l'egitto è roba sua i sovrani che si sono succeduti sono stati tutti i suoi clienti lui ha fatto riportare sul trono un certo tolomeo ha un'età che era un soggetto piuttosto deplorevole ma comunque nulla a farlo ha piazzato le sue truppe sono rimaste in egitto per sorreggere quest'uomo quindi è convinto di andare al sicuro nonostante la sconfitta tremenda farsalo la sorpresa qual è che approda in un egitto dilaniato da un conflitto dinastico e i notabili che contano intorno al re che un bambino un fanciullo pensano che ammazzando pompeo possono avere con cesare un buon rapporto o comunque un rapporto privilegiato e quindi attraggono catturano pompeo che sbarcano in una barchetta al porto di alessandria lo trafiggono lode capitano e quando cesare che si è lanciata all'inseguimento di proprio con pochissime truppe approda ad alessandria gli mostrano la testa di pompeo e cesare mostra di essere commosso ma crisi di pianto mi è stata rimproverata questa scena come di estrema falsità ipocrisia forse c'è anche un elemento di verità di patetismo vero in questa scena tutto sommato quest'uomo non era stato anche a lui molto vicino e soprattutto cesare capisce che se questi re clienti sono capaci di questo sono capaci anche nei suoi confronti di colpi di mano o di pugnalate alla schiena cosa che puntualmente accade lui viene imbottigliato nel palazzo reale di alessandria dallo stesso gruppo intorno al tolomeo tredicesimo fanciullo che ha liquidato pompeo e soltanto con tutta la sua abilità tattica a rischio di perdere completamente la sua flotta incendiandola dall'altro del palazzo e provocando l'incendio di una parte della città di alessandria in attesa di aiuti che tardano ad arrivare lui riesce a cavarsela da un assedio che poteva essere mortale alessandria è stato un punto di non ritorno napoleone ha scritto quando era ormai a sant'elena un breve libro sulle guerre di giulio cesare in cui rimprovera cesare l'imprudenza di alessandria dopo quella inopinata vittoria che poteva essere la sua tomba cesare aiutato dagli ebrei che sono accorsi in suo aiuto amici di cesare nemici di pompeo risale l'oriente rientra in italia sbarca brindisi e si trova da capo davanti una sedizione repubblicana quel catone che abbiamo più volte rubinato si è spostato nel nord africa e li organizza con l'aiuto dei re locali clienti dei romani l'ultima resistenza repubblicana la battaglia di thapsos e siamo nell'anno 46 cioè cesare passa da roma si fa a rinnovare la dittatura ma è costretto a proseguire la guerra civile che come vediamo si svolge in tutto il teatro mediterraneo a base di thapsos è stata durissima catone dopo la sconfitta si è suicidato cesare ha riordinato i rapporti diciamo così di clientela e di dipendenza da roma in quell'area geografica ma quando torna a roma si trova dinanzi all'ultima è durissima secessione quella dei figli di pompeo che in spagna avevano una base formidabile di clientele e che hanno organizzato la guerriglia quindi ancora una volta si mette in strada barca i pirenei arriva a monda e nella battaglia di monda si gioca tutto la materia di monda sta per volgere a suo sfavore e siamo nell'aprile del 45 si impegna personalmente prende in mano le insegne le aquile eccetera e la battaglia volgere a suo favore torna finalmente e questa volta non ci sono più teatri di guerra fa l'errore di trionfare anche sui pompeiani sconfitti in spagna cosa che non gli verrà mai perdonata dai suoi avversari dove a trionfare sui galli sull'egitto ma non su i suoi concittadini questo è il punto critico un errore tattico non da poco che lui commette la vicenda finale è presto detta è una vicenda in cui dal suo stesso entourage in particolare da antonio parte l'iniziativa pericolosissima di proporgli di assumere il ruolo di rex la corona durante i lupercali antonio gli offre questa corona lui la respinge la fa mettere sulla statua di giove però ormai nonostante la sua abile capacità clemenza cesaris di catturare gli avversari perdono politicamente generosissimo nonostante tutto questo serpeggia ormai nel elite senatorio in una parte di essa l'idea che quest'uomo facendosi attribuire dopo monda la dittatura a vita e quindi ormai una forma di potere monarchico diventa colui che affosserà anzi ha già affossato la repubblica ecco come nasce dal suo stesso ambiente la congiura marco giunio bruto suo figlioccio suo protetto e caio casio longino che abbiamo ricordato prima nella campagna di crasso contro i parti sono i protagonisti di una congiura per la quale più o meno i leader cicerone incluso sono coinvolti congiura che ha un risultato immediato quasi prevedibile tante pugnalate sullo stesso corpo una almeno è mortale e cesare rotola ai piedi della statua di pompeo ma il problema politico rimane tutto aperto i congiurati hanno perso il giorno dopo quando si sono accorti che la gran parte è l'opinione pubblica della plebe urbana che le legioni che una parte consistente del senato non accettano il nuovo stato di cose ea quel punto si apre un nuovo ciclo di guerre civili che si concluderà nel 31 avanti cristo è stato detto che cesare non ha fondato la monarchia uno storico inglese ha scritto ha fatto tutto ma certo non ha liquidato la repubblica questa fase sembra un po strana se uno considera che l'attentato è stato fatto perché gli si rimproverava di voler essere dittatore a vita ma l'errore compiuto sul piano istituzionale da cesare è stato di dilatare all'infinito una magistratura straordinaria alla dittatura cioè non ha saputo scegliere la forma costituzionale per far uscire dalla crisi repubblicana ci mette molto tempo la repubblica romana per diventare principato cioè governo del princeps il capolavoro lo farà ottaviano il quale fingerà di restaurare la repubblica nell'anno 27 avanti cristo arrogando a sé il ruolo di princeps realizzando dunque quel potere personale fondato sulle regioni che ci essere ha intuito ma dandogli una veste repubblicanaDiscusión 13.04Discusión 06.04Discusión 16.03