Element Names and Symbols

Sure! Here's a solid list of **AP English Literature vocabulary**—terms that often come up in class, essays, and the AP exam. I'll break it down into categories to make it easier to study. --- ### 📚 **Literary Devices & Techniques** 1. **Alliteration** – Repetition of initial consonant sounds 2. **Allusion** – A reference to another text, event, or figure 3. **Anaphora** – Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses 4. **Antithesis** – Contrast of ideas in a balanced or parallel construction 5. **Apostrophe** – Addressing someone absent, dead, or nonhuman as if present and able to respond 6. **Assonance** – Repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words 7. **Asyndeton** – Omission of conjunctions between parts of a sentence 8. **Consonance** – Repetition of consonant sounds, often at the end of words 9. **Diction** – Word choice (formal, informal, colloquial, etc.) 10. **Enjambment** – Continuation of a sentence without pause beyond the end of a line in poetry --- ### 🧠 **Figurative Language** 1. **Hyperbole** – Extreme exaggeration 2. **Imagery** – Descriptive language that appeals to the senses 3. **Irony** - *Verbal*: Saying the opposite of what’s meant - *Situational*: When the outcome is the opposite of what's expected - *Dramatic*: Audience knows something characters don’t 4. **Metaphor** – A direct comparison without using "like" or "as" 5. **Metonymy** – Substituting the name of one thing with something closely related (e.g. "The crown" for royalty) 6. **Synecdoche** – A part representing the whole (e.g. "All hands on deck") 7. **Personification** – Giving human traits to nonhuman things 8. **Simile** – A comparison using "like" or "as" 9. **Symbol** – An object, character, or color that represents something beyond itself --- ### ✍️ **Poetic & Rhetorical Terms** 1. **Caesura** – A pause in a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation 2. **Couplet** – Two lines of poetry that usually rhyme 3. **Iambic Pentameter** – A line with five iambs (unstressed-stressed syllables) 4. **Blank Verse** – Unrhymed iambic pentameter 5. **Free Verse** – Poetry with no fixed meter or rhyme 6. **Elegy** – A mournful poem, often for the dead 7. **Ode** – A lyric poem expressing emotion, often in honor of something 8. **Sonnet** – A 14-line poem with a specific rhyme scheme (Shakespearean or Petrarchan) --- ### 📖 **Narrative & Structure Terms** 1. **Tone** – The author's attitude toward the subject 2. **Mood** – The feeling or atmosphere the reader experiences 3. **Theme** – The central idea or message in a work 4. **Motif** – A recurring element that has symbolic significance 5. **Foil** – A character who contrasts with another character to highlight traits 6. **Foreshadowing** – Clues or hints about what will happen later 7. **Juxtaposition** – Placing two elements side by side to present a contrast 8. **Point of View** – Perspective from which the story is told (1st, 2nd, 3rd person) 9. **Stream of Consciousness** – Narrative style that mimics thoughts and feelings 10. **Frame Narrative** – A story within a story --- Want me to make flashcards, a quiz, or a PDF study guide with these? Or need help using them in a literary analysis essay?

Alright, Isti — here’s a longer and more detailed English version of the Isaac Newton text, still written at a level that’s accessible for Grade 4 students, but rich enough in information to meet PISA literacy expectations and EF A2-level vocabulary. I’ve kept sentences short, clear, and with explanations for new concepts so it’s easier for young learners to follow, while still including both famous facts and lesser-known stories. ⸻ Isaac Newton: The Man Who Changed the Way We See the World A Boy from a Small Village Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe, a small village in England. His life was not easy. His father died before he was born. When he was just a few months old, his mother remarried and left him to live with his grandmother. Isaac missed his parents, but he kept himself busy by making things and exploring the world around him. As a child, Isaac liked to build models and machines. He made a small windmill that could turn with the wind. He built a water clock that told the time by dripping water into a container. He even made a sundial — a clock that tells the time by using the shadow of the sun. 💡 Did you know? The sundial marks that Isaac carved as a boy can still be seen today on the wall of his old house. ⸻ School and Curiosity When Newton first went to school, he was not the top student. At first, he did not pay much attention in class. But one day, another boy teased him for not being smart. Newton decided to study hard to prove him wrong. Soon, he became the best in his class. Isaac loved asking questions. He wanted to know how and why things happened. He enjoyed watching the stars at night and thinking about how the world worked. ⸻ The Falling Apple and Gravity One of the most famous stories about Newton is the falling apple. One afternoon, Isaac sat in his mother’s garden and saw an apple drop from a tree. This made him think: “Why does the apple fall straight down? Why doesn’t it fly up into the sky?” From this question, Newton began to think about gravity — an invisible force that pulls objects toward each other. Gravity is what keeps our feet on the ground. It’s also what keeps the Moon moving around the Earth and the planets moving around the Sun. 💡 Fun fact: The apple did not hit Newton’s head. That’s just a story people made up later to make the tale more exciting. ⸻ Newton’s Three Laws of Motion Newton studied movement and wrote three important rules: 1. Objects stay still or keep moving unless something makes them change. • Example: A ball will not roll unless you push it. 2. The bigger the push, the bigger the movement. • Example: If you kick a ball harder, it will go faster and farther. 3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. • Example: When you jump off a boat, the boat moves backward as you move forward. These three laws are still used today to understand how cars, rockets, and even roller coasters work. ⸻ Discoveries in Light and Color Newton also studied light. He found that white light is not just one color — it is made of many colors. He used a glass prism to split sunlight into a rainbow. This helped scientists understand how colors work. ⸻ Inventions and New Ideas Newton made a special telescope that used mirrors instead of lenses. This type of telescope made images of planets and stars much clearer. It is still called the Newtonian telescope today. He also worked in mathematics and helped create a new type of math called calculus, which is used to study changes and movement. ⸻ Strange Experiments Newton was so curious that he sometimes tested ideas on himself. Once, he put a thin needle, called a bodkin, beside his eye to see how it would change his vision. It was very dangerous, but luckily he did not go blind. 💡 Did you know? Newton also studied alchemy — an old kind of science where people tried to turn metal into gold. He never succeeded, but it showed how wide his interests were. ⸻ Later Life and Work At the age of 27, Newton became a professor at Cambridge University. He later worked for the Royal Mint, making sure coins were made safely and stopping people from making fake money. He was very strict, and some criminals were sent to prison because of his work. Newton never married. He spent most of his life reading, writing, and doing experiments. ⸻ The End of His Life Isaac Newton died in 1727 at the age of 84. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, a famous place in London where great people of Britain are honored. His work changed the world forever. Even today, scientists, engineers, and students still use Newton’s laws and ideas. 💬 Newton once said: “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” This means we can make new discoveries by learning from the work of others who came before us. give 10 questions to each passage with PISA literacy standard for kid 10 years, 1. Nikola Tesla: The Man Who Dreamed of Lightning Born: July 10, 1856 Died: January 7, 1943 When Nikola Tesla was a boy in Croatia, he saw a flash of lightning and asked his mother, “Can we catch the light?” That question never left him. As he grew older, Tesla became a brilliant inventor, especially fascinated by electricity. He believed in a future where energy could be sent wirelessly through the air—like music through the radio! Tesla invented the alternating current (AC) system, which became the foundation of modern electricity. At the time, Thomas Edison promoted direct current (DC), and the two men had a fierce competition. Many laughed at Tesla's bold ideas, but he never gave up. He dreamed of wireless communication, flying machines, and even free energy for everyone. Though he died alone and poor, today the world honors his vision. Think About It: Why do you think people didn’t believe Tesla at first? What can we learn from Tesla’s courage to dream big? 2. Charles Darwin: The Man Who Studied the World’s Weirdest Creatures Born: February 12, 1809 Died: April 19, 1882 When young Charles Darwin got on a ship called HMS Beagle, he didn’t know he would change science forever. He sailed around the world for five years, collecting plants, animals, and fossils. On the Galápagos Islands, he noticed something curious: finches had different beaks depending on their island. Why? Darwin’s observations led him to write the theory of evolution by natural selection. It explained how animals adapt and survive. But his ideas shocked many people because they seemed to challenge religious beliefs. Despite the controversy, Darwin continued his work. His book On the Origin of Species changed how we see life on Earth. Think About It: Should scientists share their ideas even if they go against what others believe? How did traveling help Darwin make new discoveries? 3. Marie Curie: The Woman Who Glowed in the Dark Born: November 7, 1867 Died: July 4, 1934 Marie Curie was born in Poland at a time when girls were not allowed to study science. But that didn’t stop her. She moved to France, worked day and night, and discovered radioactivity, a powerful energy hidden inside atoms. She and her husband, Pierre Curie, found two new elements: polonium and radium. She became the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, and the only person to win in two different sciences: physics and chemistry. Even when Pierre died in an accident, Marie continued their work. Her discoveries helped doctors treat cancer—but working with radioactive materials also harmed her health. She died from radiation exposure, but her legacy lives on. Think About It: What challenges did Marie Curie face as a woman in science? Why is it important to balance discovery with safety? 4. Galileo Galilei: The Star Watcher Who Defied the Church Born: February 15, 1564 Died: January 8, 1642 Galileo loved looking at the stars. He built one of the first powerful telescopes and made stunning discoveries: mountains on the Moon, moons around Jupiter, and that the Earth orbits the Sun—not the other way around. This idea, called heliocentrism, went against the teachings of the Church. He was put on trial and forced to say he was wrong. But he wasn’t. He spent his last years under house arrest, quietly writing. Today, Galileo is called the father of modern science for daring to question what others blindly believed. Think About It: Why do you think Galileo was punished for telling the truth? Should science always follow evidence, even if it goes against powerful beliefs? 5. Isaac Newton: The Man Who Asked “Why?” When an Apple Fell Born: January 4, 1643 Died: March 31, 1727 One day, an apple fell from a tree, and Isaac Newton began to wonder: Why did it fall down, not sideways or up? This simple question led to his theory of gravity. Newton also invented calculus, described the laws of motion, and changed physics forever. But Newton wasn’t just a genius—he was curious, quiet, and often worked alone. He believed everything in nature followed rules, and it was our job to discover them. Thanks to him, we understand how planets move, how rockets launch, and why you fall when you trip. Think About It: How did Newton’s curiosity lead to great discoveries? Do you think working alone helped or hurt Newton? 6. Ada Lovelace: The First Computer Programmer Before Computers Existed Born: December 10, 1815 Died: November 27, 1852 Ada Lovelace was the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, but she didn’t love poetry—she loved numbers! At a time when girls were expected to sew, Ada studied mathematics. She met Charles Babbage, who designed an early computer called the Analytical Engine. Ada imagined the machine could do more than just math—it could create music, art, and even write! She wrote what is now considered the first computer program, long before real computers were built. Think About It: How did Ada imagine something that didn’t exist yet? Why do we call her a pioneer in technology? 7. Albert Einstein: The Man Who Brought Time and Space Together Born: March 14, 1879 Died: April 18, 1955 Albert Einstein wasn’t always a good student. In fact, his teachers thought he was slow. But Einstein thought deeply. He asked big questions like, “What if you could ride a beam of light?” His theories of relativity changed how we see space, time, and gravity. He also warned the world about the dangers of nuclear weapons, even though his ideas helped create them. Einstein believed science should help people, not harm them. With his messy hair, kind smile, and brilliant mind, he remains a symbol of genius. Think About It: Can someone be bad in school but still be brilliant? Should scientists be responsible for how their inventions are used? 8. Pythagoras: The Musician Who Loved Math Born: Around 570 BC Died: Around 495 BC Long ago in ancient Greece, Pythagoras believed the universe followed numbers. He discovered the Pythagorean Theorem, a rule about triangles that helps us build houses, design computers, and navigate space. He also believed that music had math inside it—that certain notes made perfect harmony because of mathematical ratios. Pythagoras started a secret school and taught his students to search for truth through numbers, shapes, and sound. Think About It: Why do you think Pythagoras saw math in everything? How does music relate to math? 9. Rosalind Franklin: The Woman Behind the DNA Discovery Born: July 25, 1920 Died: April 16, 1958 Rosalind Franklin loved looking closely at things. She used a special machine called X-ray crystallography to photograph molecules. One of her greatest photos, called Photo 51, showed the shape of DNA, the molecule that carries life’s instructions. But her work was taken without credit. Two men, Watson and Crick, used her photo to build their famous model of DNA and won the Nobel Prize. Rosalind died young and never knew how important her work became. Think About It: Why is it important to give credit in science? What can we learn from Rosalind’s quiet strength? 10. Carl Linnaeus: The Man Who Gave Names to Everything Born: May 23, 1707 Died: January 10, 1778 Have you ever wondered why a tiger is called Panthera tigris? That’s thanks to Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish scientist who created a way to name and organize every living thing. His system is still used today in biology. Linnaeus loved nature and spent his life collecting plants, animals, and even rocks. He believed that by organizing life, we could better understand it. Thanks to him, we now have a global “dictionary of nature.” Think About It: Why is it important to name and organize living things? How does order help us understand the world?

Here is a transcript of a video about Narrative Writing. Generate 25 questions. Intro to Narrative Writing What is Narrative Writing? You today, I want to introduce you to the basics of narrative writing. Narrative writing is writing that tells a story. It can be real or imagined, that is, nonfiction or fiction. It has a beginning, middle, and end. That is, it includes the basic elements of a plot exposition, rising action, conflict, climax, falling action, and resolution. And it's full of interesting details. The author's purpose in writing a narrative is to entertain the reader. There are three main types of narrative writing. The first is a personal narrative when a writer shares a true story from his or her own life. We could also say this type of narrative is autobiographical. The second type of narrative is biographical when a writer shares a true story from another person's life. The third type of narrative is fictional. When a writer tells an invented story, short stories, and novels are fictional narratives. The Process of Writing a Narrative While we could add to this list, there are five important parts of a narrative that I especially want you to remember as you write your own narrative. These parts of a narrative include setting, characters, plot, point of view, and dialogue. The first part of a narrative is the setting , where, and when the narrative takes place. The setting affects both the plot and characters in your narrative, so it's important to spend some time brainstorming where, when, and in what conditions your story takes place. The second part of a narrative is the characters , the people, animals or creatures involved in a story. Remember that your story must have a protagonist, the character facing the problem, and an antagonist the character or force causing the problem. Take some time while planning your narrative to focus on your characters beyond the characters names and roles they play in the story. Think about whether you'd like them to be flat with very few character traits or round with many character traits. Also think about which characters in your story will remain static or unchanged, and which characters will be dynamic, undergoing an important change in your narrative. The third part of a narrative is the plot , the sequence of events in a narrative. Take some time to think carefully through your story's plot. How will it begin and how will it end? What conflicts will your characters encounter? What is the climax or turning point of your story? How will the problems be solved? Creating a storyboard or labeling a plot diagram are both good tools for planning your story's plot. The fourth part of a narrative is the point of view , which is the perspective from which a narrative is told. You can choose to write your narrative in first person, writing a personal narrative from your own point of view, or you can choose a character in a fictional narrative to tell your story. Another option is to write your narrative in the third person point of view, telling the story from the perspective of an unseen narrator that is not a character in the story. Finally, the fifth part of a narrative is dialogue. The words the characters speak in your story dialogue can establish the setting, show characterization, foreshadow events, or advance the action in a narrative. Dialogue brings your narrative to life. It's important to review how to punctuate dialogue, following grammatical rules for using quotation marks, commas, and other N marks such as periods and question marks. As you begin writing your narrative, I'll help you break down each step of the process. But hopefully this introduction gives you a basic understanding of what narrative writing is, and hopefully it sparks some ideas for you to begin planning your own narrative.

Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1− . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2− as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2−) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic mass−atomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2− has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1− . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2− . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2−3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2−3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1− 2− 3− 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO2−3 arsenate, AsO3−3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrO−3 chromate, CrO2−4 phosphite, PO3−3 chlorate, ClO−3 dichromate, Cr2O2−7 phosphate, PO3−4 chlorite, ClO−2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4 cyanide, CN− oxalate, C2O2−4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO−4 peroxide, O2−2 hydrogen carbonate, HCO−3 silicate, SiO2−3 hydrogen sulfate, HSO−4 sulfate, SO2−4 hydrogen sulfide, HS− sulfite, SO2−3 hydroxide, OH− hypochlorite, ClO− nitrate, NO−3 nitrite, NO−2 perchlorate, ClO−4 permanganate, MnO−4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO−3) and nitrite (NO−2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClO− , hypochlorite ClO−2 , chlorite ClO−3 , chlorate ClO−4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.

What is Historical Fiction? Historical fiction is stories set in the past. Yes, it sounds like a paradox or contradiction, but historical means factual elements and fiction means not real. However, there are things that we must pay attention to as people studying this genre. Historical fiction seeks to recreate the appearance of a time past, reconstructing characters, events, movements, ways of life, and the spirit of a bygone day. The time period--and its portrayal--is at the core of the story. Historical Fiction is written with a careful balance of research and creativity, they transport readers to another time and place—which can be real, imagined, or a combination of both. Many historical novels tell stories that involve actual historical figures or historical events within historical settings, though other elements such as persons or events might be fabricated. Historical fiction often presents actual events from the point of view of fictional people living in that time period. In some historical fiction, famous events appear from points of view not recorded in history, with fictional characters either observing or actively participating in these actual events. Historical figures are also often shown dealing with these events while depicting them in a way that has not been previously recorded. Other times, a historical event is used to complement a story's narrative, occurring in the background while characters deal with situations (personal or otherwise) wholly unrelated to that historical event. Sometimes, the names of people and places have been in some way altered. Historical fiction depicts settings that tend be real and drawn from history, and often contains actual historical persons, but the main characters tend to be fictional. Writers of stories in this genre, while penning fiction, attempt to capture the manners and social conditions of the persons or time(s) presented in the story, with due attention paid to period detail and fidelity. Historical fiction is found in books, magazines, art, television programming, film, theater, video games and other media. Writers of this genre are given artistic license in regard to presentation and subject matter, so long as it does not deviate in significant ways from established history. NOTE: When author’s include elements from one time period in another time period this is called Anachronism. For example, if one of the knights of the Round Table wore a wristwatch or a character during the Civil Rights era made a call using a cell phone.

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