
EVALUATION PART
Quiz by Emerie Kris Ordinario
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â1. Which of the following sentences is correct?
D. The dogs chases its tail.
B. The dog chases its tail.
C. The dog chase their tail.
A. The dog chase its tail.
â2. Select the correct sentence.
C. The book on the shelf are dusty.
D. The books on the shelves is dusty.
A. The books on the shelf is dusty.
B. The books on the shelf are dusty.
1. Which of the following sentences is correct?
2. Select the correct sentence.
3. Choose the correct verb for the sentence: "Each of the students _____ a book."
4. Which sentence is correct?
5. Select the correct version: "Neither of the dogs _____ barking."
6. Which is the correct sentence?
7. Choose the correct verb for the sentence: "The committee _____ decided on the issue."
8. Which sentence is correct?
9. Select the correct version: "A number of students _____ absent today."
10. Which is the correct sentence?
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Can you create an evaluation using this information PHONETICS VS. PHONOLOGY Whereas phonetics is the study of sounds that occur in language, phonology is the study of how these sounds are organized and how they function in language. It uses the classifications of sounds derived from phonetics to describe and analyze how sounds occur in speech. STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS As linguists began to study sounds in fine detail, they recognized increasingly complex aspects of phonetic organization. For example, the sound /p/ appears in different varieties in English. STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS One of the varieties of /p/ is indicated by [ph]. This sound is produced with an accompanying puff of air called aspiration, as in the words âpill,â and âpeace.â Another sound, indicated by [pâą], is produced when there is little or no aspiration; this sound occurs in a word like âspill.â A third major variety for the /p/ sound is the unreleased [pâ ], which may occur at the end of a word like âstop.â To deal with these variations for the /p/ sound, the structuralists suggested the existence of an abstract unit which they termed a phoneme. STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS A phoneme was defined by the structuralists as an abstract phonological unit that represents a class of real sounds, termed the allophones of a phoneme. The phoneme /p/ in English, then, is represented by the allophones [ph], [pâą], and [pâ ]. STRUCTURALISTS: MINIMAL PAIRS How do we know what these abstract units of sound called phonemes are? In order to find the phonemes of a language, the structuralists developed the concept of the minimal pair, defined as any two words that: a) Contain the same number of segments b) Differ in meaning c) Exhibit only one phonetic difference. STRUCTURALISTS: MINIMAL PAIRS In practical terms, phonemes distinguish meanings; and a phoneme can also be defined as the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit of sound. For instance, the words âpinâ /pÉȘn/ and âbinâ /bÉȘn/ mean different things, and the only one difference in these words occurs in the initial sounds. STRUCTURALISTS: MINIMAL PAIRS By using the concept of a minimal pair, we can determine that the three variations of the /p/ sound do not represent three phonemes. Certainly, it is possible to pronounce the word cap with either an aspirated [ph ] or unreleased [pâ ]; however, the two forms [kĂŠph ] and [kĂŠpâ ] are not a minimal pair, even though they involve different sounds, because they are identical in meaning. STRUCTURALISTS: FREE VARIATION The two forms [kĂŠph ] and [kĂŠpâ ] are, therefore, said to exhibit free variation: that is, the pronunciation may vary without signifying a change in meaning. In other words, we may conclude that the unreleased [pâ ] and the aspirated [ph ] are not representations of different phonemes in English; they are, in fact, allophones of one phoneme, /p/. STRUCTURALISTS: COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION When phonemes have more than one allophone in a language, the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution. Complementary distribution means that the allophones of a phoneme occur in different phonetic environments (that is, with different sounds surrounding them). TRANSFORMATIONAL- GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY Transformational-generative phonology is a relatively recent development in linguistic theory. Chomsky launched Transformational-Generative Grammar in 1957, but the earliest studies within this framework were largely concerned with syntax. A decade later, the first comprehensive transformational-generative treatment of English phonology appeared: Chomsky and Halleâs The Sound Pattern of English (1968). TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY Transformational-generative phonologists strongly oppose the structuralistsâ phonemic level. They replace this level by a series of rules that directly relate underlying representations to observed phonetic representations. The central mechanisms in transformational-generative phonology, then, are underlying representations and phonological rules. PHONOLOGICAL RULES A rule is an operational statement in which some linguistic entity is modified, resulting in a new linguistic entity. Rules may add elements, remove elements, or change elements. By using phonological rules, linguists attempt to demonstrate that there is order in linguistic phenomena and that linguistic patterns are systematic. PHONOLOGICAL DERIVATION A phonological derivation is an operation that begins with an underlying representation and, through the application of a set of specific rules, yields the actual sound the speaker produces. The representation of a phonological rule has the following general appearance. /A/ â [B] / C âAâ changes to âBâ under condition âCâ PHONOLOGICAL RULE â EXAMPLE In most Southern dialects, the word ten is pronounced like the word tin. This is not an isolated fact, for den is pronounced like din and Ben is pronounced like bin, and so on. This very general fact can be represented by the phonological rule: /É/ â [I] / ___ [n] den /dÉn/ â /dIn/ Ben /bÉn/ â /bIn/ ten /tÉn/ â /tIn/ /É/ â [I] / ___ [n] - high - low - tense + front + high - tense + front + sonorant + anterior + coronal - continuant NOTATIONAL DEVICES IN PHONOLOGICAL RULES The statement of phonological rules can be complex, and linguists have developed several notational devices for writing them. Often, the following symbols will be necessary for stating the conditions under which rules apply: # indicates a word boundary + indicates an intraword boundary $ indicates a syllable boundary UNDERLYING REPRESENTATIONS AND RELATED ISSUES The transformational-generative description of phonology relates underlying representations to phonetic representations by rules. This can be represented in a simple example: In English, there are certain pairs of words like sign / signature, and malign / malignant that exhibit a regular alternation in their phonetic representations: [g] is present in the second member of the pairs but absent in the first member. UNDERLYING REPRESENTATIONS AND RELATED ISSUES To explain the relatedness of words such as sign / signature, we could claim that the underlying representation of the segment in all such pairs is /g/ and that a rule operates to delete /g/ before syllable-final nasals. Thus, the rule â/g/ is deleted before syllable-final nasalâ would appear formally as: + voice - anterior ââ
____ [+ nasal] $ - coronal UNDERLYING REPRESENTATIONS AND RELATED ISSUES On the left-hand side of the arrow, we place the features needed to uniquely specify /g/ among the consonants; that is, no other consonant has the features [+ voice], [- anterior], and [- coronal]. The symbols â mean that the sound /g/ changes to nothing or more properly â/g/ is deleted.â The horizontal line following the slash mark refers to the position of /g/ - namely, before a segment that is [+nasal]. Finally, this [+nasal] segment occurs before a syllable boundary, as indicated by $. A less formal way of writing this rule would be: /g/ â / _ [+nasal] $ Notice that this rule also helps describe such alternations as phlegm/phlegmatic and paradigm/paradigmatic. Application Activity: Think of other words in which this rule can be applied. Write the sound segments to prove /g/ is deleted. Another example is the process through which the prefix meaning ânotâ is added to words. This prefix alternates among the forms /Im/, /In/, and /IĆ/, depending on the point of articulation of the initial segment of the following word. -If the segment begins in the extreme front part of the mouth (labials), the form is /Im/, as in improper. -If the segment begins in the extreme back part of the mouth (velars), the form is /IĆ/, as in incomplete. -If the segment begins in the mid-region of the mouth (all other sounds), the form is /In/, as in indecent. *Exceptions:Words beginning with /r/ or /l/. Analyze the Word âin + complete,â for example. /n/ â [Ć] / __ [k] - continuant - continuant - continuant + sonorant â + sonorant - sonorant + anterior - anterior - strident + coronal - coronal - coronal + tense THE VELAR SOFTENING RULE Still another example of alternation in English is found in pairs of words like âelectric / electricity,â in which the segments /k/ and /s/ alternate. /k/ changes to [s] only before non- low, front vowels. THE VELAR SOFTENING RULE /k/ â [s] / __ - continuant + continuant - strident â - sonorant V - anterior + anterior - low - coronal + coronal - back
EVALUER LE RISQUE CLIENT I Les enjeux liĂ©s au risque client II la prise de renseignements pendant la phase commerciale III LâĂ©valuation de la solvabilitĂ© dâun prospect ou client 1. A partir du bilan comptable 2. A lâaide dâindicateurs internes IV Les outils dâĂ©valuation des risques I Les enjeux liĂ©s au risque client 1. DĂ©finition et critĂšres de risques On entend par risque client lâensemble des situations dans lesquelles le client pourrait compromettre la pĂ©rennitĂ© du fournisseur. Quelques critĂšres permettent de repĂ©rer le risque client : - la taille et lâĂąge de lâentreprise - le produit quâelle propose, - son client avec ses propres clients (la sous traitance par exemple induit un lien de dĂ©pendance) - le secteur sur lequel elle Ă©volue - la concurrence quâelle subit - et le montant de ses disponibilitĂ©s On peut ainsi rĂ©partir les degrĂ©s de risque : 2. Les impayĂ©s clients : premiĂšre cause de faillite des entreprises Par principe, lâentreprise dĂ©pense avant dâencaisser. En accordant des dĂ©lais de paiement, elle se prive de trĂ©sorerie. Elle a alors un besoin en fonds de roulement (BFR), c'est-Ă -dire besoin de disposer dâune trĂ©sorerie dâavance. Tout retard de paiement engendre donc une augmentation du BFR que lâentreprise nâest parfois plus en Ă©tat de couvrir (dĂ©couvert bancaire).Lorsque le client est insolvable, câest un manque de trĂ©sorerie qui pĂšse sur lâentreprise et donc sur sa pĂ©rennitĂ©. La PME limite donc les risques si certains de ses clients payent comptant. Les entreprises activent donc plusieurs stratĂ©gies pour faire face Ă leurs impayĂ©s : 29% gĂšrent les relances en interne, 24% nĂ©gocient des facilitĂ©s de caisse avec leur banque et 19% nĂ©gocient avec les fournisseurs. II la prise de renseignements pendant la phase commerciale Lâentreprise qui souhaite conclure un contrat avec un prospect professionnel peut consulter un certain nombre de documents disponibles auprĂšs dâorganismes. Les organismes les plus sollicitĂ©s sont : - la greffe du tribunal de commerce : elle dĂ©livre gratuitement des informations sur les entreprises immatriculĂ©es au registre du commerce et des sociĂ©tĂ©s telles que les statuts, les comptes annuels, lâĂ©tat dâendettement, lâextrait kbis. L'extrait Kbis reprĂ©sente la vĂ©ritable « carte d'identitĂ© » Ă jour d'une entreprise immatriculĂ©e au Registre du Commerce et des SociĂ©tĂ©s (RCS). - les sociĂ©tĂ©s spĂ©cialisĂ©es fournissent des informations commerciales et financiĂšres, des documents comptables et des analyses payantes permettant de vĂ©rifier lâĂ©tat de santĂ© des entreprises : - les cabinets de recouvrement et sociĂ©tĂ©s dâassurance : ils rĂ©alisent des enquĂȘtes de solvabilitĂ© et Ă©mettent un avis sur le risque de dĂ©faillance sous forme de score ou de note. - Les banques : les entreprises sont notĂ©es par les banques. La cotation de la banque mesure la capacitĂ© de lâentreprise Ă honorer ses engagements financiers sur 3 ans. GrĂące Ă cette cotation, la PME peut ainsi , par lâintermĂ©diaire de la banque, vĂ©rifier si le prospect ou client est solide financiĂšrement. III LâĂ©valuation de la solvabilitĂ© dâun prospect ou client La solvabilitĂ© correspond Ă la capacitĂ© de lâentreprise Ă faire face Ă ses engagements Ă long terme. Lâentreprise est solvable si la valeur de ses actifs (immobilisations, crĂ©ances, stocks et disponibilitĂ©s) est supĂ©rieure Ă ses emprunts et dettes. Une entreprise peut ĂȘtre solvable mais peut manquer de liquiditĂ©s, c'est-Ă -dire dâargent disponible au quotidien. La liquidĂ© mesure donc la capacitĂ© de lâentreprise Ă faire face Ă ses engagements Ă court terme. 1. A partir du bilan comptable Le bilan comptable fournit des indications sur la santĂ© financiĂšre de lâentreprise prospect Les dĂ©finitions que vous devez maitriser : âą Pour lâactif : Câest quoi une Immobilisation ? La notion d'immobilisation intĂšgre l'ensemble des biens durables dĂ©tenus par une entreprise sur plus d'un exercice comptable et qui ne sont pas destinĂ©s Ă la revente. Les immobilisations financiĂšres correspondent aux actifs financiers d'utilisation durable possĂ©dĂ©s par l'entreprise. Il s'agit notamment des titres de participation, des prĂȘts accordĂ©s⊠Les immobilisations incorporelles comprennent les frais d'Ă©tablissement, les frais de recherche et dĂ©veloppement, les concessions, brevets, licences, marques, logiciels et autres droits similaires, le droit au bail, le fonds commercial. Une immobilisation corporelle correspond Ă un actif physique que lâentreprise entend utiliser au-delĂ de la clĂŽture de lâexercice comptable en cours : les terrains, les constructions, lâagencement et les installations gĂ©nĂ©rales, lâoutillage, le matĂ©riel, les vĂ©hicules, le mobilier et les Ă©quipements informatiques. Que signifie disponibilitĂ©s ? Le poste "DisponibilitĂ©s" est constituĂ© des montants dĂ©tenus en caisse (piĂšces et billets que l'entreprise possĂšde) et des avoirs en banque (argent dĂ©tenu sur les comptes bancaires de l'entreprise). On utilise Ă©galement le terme de trĂ©sorerie. Câest quoi une valeur mobiliĂšre de placement ? Ce sont des titres financiers, actions ou obligations. En comptabilitĂ©, elles correspondent aux excĂ©dents de trĂ©sorerie placĂ©s par l'entreprise. âą Pour le passif : Que signifie capitaux propres ? Les capitaux propres sont les ressources financiĂšres que possĂšde l'entreprise Le capital social dâune entreprise est Ă©gal au montant total des apports de biens et dâargent des associĂ©s Que signifie rĂ©serves ? Cumul des bĂ©nĂ©fices des exercices antĂ©rieurs qui n'ont pas Ă©tĂ© redistribuĂ©s aux propriĂ©taires de l'entreprise, ni intĂ©grĂ©s dans son capital Que signifie rĂ©sultat ? Il correspond aux ressources restantes Ă l'entreprise une fois les charges dĂ©duites du chiffre d'affaires. 2 A lâaide dâindicateurs internes Une entreprise manque souvent de temps et de moyens pour suivre lâensemble des ses encours clients. Toutefois, il est nĂ©cessaire dâanalyser rĂ©guliĂšrement certains supports pour anticiper les problĂšmes de trĂ©sorerie. Elle peut - analyser son portefeuille clients via la mĂ©thode ABC (vu dans un chapitre prĂ©cĂ©dent), - prendre du recul sur les retards de paiement : le service comptable signale les retards de paiement ou les demandes rĂ©guliĂšres de report dâĂ©chĂ©ances. La balance ĂągĂ©e permet de visualiser les clients Ă relancer Exemple : - mettre en place des indicateurs de suivi des impayĂ©s via un tableau Excel Exemple : IV Les outils dâĂ©valuation des risques Les entreprises peuvent se procurer des logiciels dĂ©diĂ©s au risque client mais il sont souvent trĂšs complexes Ă utiliser. Certaines entreprises utilisent le crĂ©dit management : câest lâensemble des procĂ©dures financiĂšres ou juridiques visant Ă optimiser le chiffre dâaffaires de lâentreprise en accĂ©lĂ©rant les rĂšglements clients. Une des mĂ©thodes de crĂ©dit management sâappelle la mĂ©thode des points de risque. Elle consiste Ă classer les clients selon leur risque afin de leur fixer des modalitĂ©s de paiement adaptĂ©s. Elle permet donc dâĂ©valuer les risques de coopĂ©ration et de se prĂ©munir au cas par cas. Exemple de tableau des points de risque