the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish

the study of behavior and thinking using the (scientific) experimental method

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

the science of behavior and mental processes

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicatin

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied

The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance ,thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

researchers follow the same subjects over an extended period of time.

experimenter might consciously or unconsciously look to confirm what they already believe about their hypothesis

describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures.

measures how far a data set is spread out. The technical definition is "The average of the squared differences from the mean."

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.

a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.

a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.

the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals.

approach to motivation that assumes people are governed by insticts similar to those of animals.

a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism

a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension

approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal

those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst

those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval

the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state

a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity

theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation

law stating performance is related to arousal; moderate levels or arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high. This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: Easy tasks require a high-moderate level whereas more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level

things that attract or lure people into action

theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties

according to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential

the particular level of weight the body tries to maintain

the rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting

a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full

a condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or more occurs

a condition in which a person develops a cycle of "binging," or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and then using unhealthy methods to avoid weight gain

the "feeling" aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings

theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion. I am afraid because I am shaking

Humanist theory of motivation that says we must first fulfill lower level needs before achieving personal fulfillment and self actualization; Physiological-Safety-Belongingness and Love-Esteem-Cognitive-Self Actualization

stops the eating response; lets us know we are full; if damaged, we would continue to eat

initiates the eating response; lets us know we are hungry; if damaged, we would starve

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

The tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

A model of the body's response to chronic stress; the three phases are alarm (fight-or-flight response), resistance, and exhaustion.

A simple sugar that is an important source of energy.

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change

a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

easygoing, relaxed people

Studies physical, cognitive, and social development across the lifespan

nature/nurture continuity/stages stability/change

The fertilized egg; enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

the developing human organism from 2 weeks through 2nd month

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

during the prenatal period, the head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body

an organized pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from the center of the body outward

development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint (severe deprivation or abuse can effect maturation)

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of their hand

Infant's response in turning toward the source of touching anywhere around their mouth

Flinching when falling backward

Foot fanning with the toes spreading

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Physical and mental abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

Emotional ties that form between people; especially between babies and their parents

By about 8 months, infants develop a fear of strangers; cry when they see them and grasp for the parent

Around 8 months , child begins to cry when the parent leaves

Psychologists who conducted the experiment with Rhesus Monkeys and Contact Comfort

Animals and people prefer the sense of touch in strange situations over food

Process by which some animals form immediate attachments during a critical period

Psychologists who imprinted baby ducks to himself

Children feel protected and trust their parents (parent leaves, upon return, kids are happy)

Children show anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships (parent leaves, upon return, kids still unhappy)

Psychologists who worked with cognitive development in kids and found that children's thinking develops in 4 stages

Stage 1 of Cognitive Development: experience the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping) 0-2 years

Understanding that an object exists even when they can't be seen or touched (after 12 months)

Stage 2 of cognitive development; child begins to use language and symbols, mental imagination, egocentrism. (2-6 years)

inability to see another person's point of view

Quantity of substances remain the same despite changes in their shape or arrangement (kids don't get this; some high school kids still don't)

Begin to learn law of conservation, multi-dimensional thinking, less egocentric, elementary math, 6-12 years

Abstract and hypothetical thinking (geometry), can think of several different approaches to solving problems, examines the future, personal values.... 12-adulthood

Piaget believed the process by which new information is placed into preexisting categories or schema

Piaget believed the process of adjusting existing ways of thinking or schema to understand new information

these parents impose rules and expect obedience. Their kids ten to be less social and lack self-esteem

these parents submit to their children's desires and make few demands and use little punishment. Their kids tend to be more aggressive and immature

these parents are both demanding and responsive. They set rules but also encourage open discussion. Their children have self-esteem, self reliant, and competent

Psychologist who related to children's MORAL REASONING (came up with the Heinz Dilemma)

scenario in which a man's wife was near death from a cancer. A pharmacist in community had the cure but was selling it for crazy high amount to benefit himself.

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing

characteristics that are directly involved in reproduction

characteristics that distinguish males from females, but not in reproduction

Psychologists who believed that humans go through 8 stages and in each stage there is a challenge that must be mastered in order for healthy development to continue

culturally preferred timing of events- marriage, parenthood, retirement

Serious loss of cognitive functioning after age 65

Degenerative brain disorder that causes memory loss, disorientation, mental helplessness

End of menstruation for women around late 40s and early 50s

Belief that life is meaningful and worthwhile even when physical abilities are not what they used to be

Prejudice against senior citizens

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

a mental image or best example of a category.

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

babies spontaneously uttering a variety of words, such as ah-goo

the stage in which children speak mainly in single words

they start uttering two word sentences

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

the retention of encoded information over time.

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

the encoding of picture images.

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

the loss of memory.

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called non-declarative or procedural memory.)

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

Relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience

Defined: learn by putting together two events; Example: Expect to hear thunder after viewing lightening

Contribution: developed the theory of "classical conditioning" while working with dogs; Significance: Father of Classical Conditioning

Contribution: applies Classical Conditioning to Humans through the "Little Albert" Experiment; Significance: Creates "Behaviorism" Theory

Contributions: Invented the Operant chamber, aka his ________ box, to use in his research of animal learning.; Significance: Father & Developer of Operant Conditioning

Contribution: Studied how children mimic others behaviors and repeat that same behavior; Significance: Creates "Observational Learning" Theory

Contribution: studied cats in puzzle boxes and recorded their behaviors; Significance: Creates "Law of Effect" theory

Contribution: Demonstrated the significance of biological processes in classical conditioning; Significance: Creates "Taste Aversions" theory

First experiment that created and demonstrate the theory of classical conditioning

First experiment to demonstrate how emotions can be classically conditioned in humans; Provides a foundation for the "Behaviorism Theory"

Learning that takes place when two or more stimuli are paired together; UCS = UCR; NS + UCS = UCR; & CS = CR

a theory that made psychology an objective science by making it based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind.

Part of Classical Conditioning; It is the stimulus that triggers a natural reflexive response.; Pavlov's Dogs: "Meat"; Little Albert: "Loud noise"

Part of Classical Conditioning; It is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the stimulus; Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Meat"; Little Albert: "Screaming at the Loud Noise"

Part of Classical Conditioning; It initially has no effect but after conditioning, it triggers a natural reflexive response.; Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Bell"; Little Albert: "White Mouse"

Part of Classical Conditioning; Occurs after conditioning when the conditioned stimulus (CS) triggers an innate response; Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Bell"; Little Albert: "Screaming/Crying"

does not caused an unconditioned response but eventually becomes the CS

When a neutral stimulus becomes the the conditioned stimulus

Classical Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because CS no longer paired with the UCS; Operant Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because it is no longer reinforced or punished

Classical Conditioning: When a previous CR returns after it has been extinguished; Operant Conditioning: Occurs when a response begins again after extinction

Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are different. (Example: Little Albert being afraid of any thing that is white and furry); Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was NOT learned (Example: Not cursing at home or at school)

Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are the same (Example: Little Albert being afraid of a white mouse); Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was learned (Example: Cursing only at home because it is acceptable but not at school)

When the first CS is paired with a second CS; The second CS is presented briefly before the first CS

If you ingest an unusual food or drink and then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink.; Significance: Violates the acquisition principles of classical conditioning

Defined: Exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive (bad) events produces passive behavior; Example: If a student consistently fails math, they may start to give up or a sports team that consistently loses may start to belive they can't win

humans and animals have predisposed fears that help us survive; Examples; Phobia of heights keeps us away from danger

Learning is based on the association of one's behavior and its consequences. Consequences are reinforced or punished

if a behavior results in a satisfying consequence, it will likely be repeated whereas; if a behavior results in a unsatisfying consequence, it will NOT likely be repeated; Example: If you complement your mother and she lets you stay out past curfew, you will complement her again

Also known as: Operant Chamber; A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal (rat or pigeon) can manipulate in order to obtain a reward

Part of Operant Conditioning; Adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occuring again; Example: Receiving $5 for every "A" in high school

Part of Operant Conditioning; Increasing the likelihood of a behavior occurring again by removing a negative stimuli; Example: Taking aspirin to relieve a headache

Reinforcers that are rewarding such as food, water, rest, whose natural properties are reinforcing.

Defined: Reinforcers that are rewarding because we learned that are reinforcing.; Example: praise, money, the chance to play video games.

Defined: when you are immediately rewarded for a behavior (it's all about the short run); Example: skipping school and enjoying time with friends

Defined: when you complete a behavior but not awarded immediately (it's all about the long run); Example: getting good grades in school and attending class in order to get a good job in the future

Part of Operant Conditioning; Adding something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again; Example: Spanking and yelling

Part of Operant Conditioning; Removing something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again; Example: Taking away a cell phone

Part of Operant Conditioning; Positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior

if a random reinforcement follows an event, the event will likely be repeated.; Example: a lucky shirt, shoes, etc.

When every behavior is reinforced

When a random behavior is reinforced; Example: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval

schedule of reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: Being paid for every 10 pizzas made

schedule of reinforcement after a varying number of responses. Example: playing a slot machine

schedule of reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed Example: cramming for an exam

schedule of reinforcement after varying amounts of time Example: pop (surprise) quizzes in class

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

having the ability or know how to accomplish a particular task

the desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake—rewards can carry hidden costs. Example: reading books because you find them rewarding

the desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment. Example: reading a book because you need to get a good grade in your English class

learn by watching others Example: BoBo Doll Study

Psychologist: Bandura Description: Children watched (through a one way glass)a confederate play with the BoBo doll and then played with the BoBo doll in the same way as the confederate

People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others Significance: When parents help their grandparents, the children will likely do the same

People show violent, selfish behavior prompts similar behaviors in others Significance: Watching violent TV prompts similar behaviors in others (pro-wrestling, etc.)

minimal amount of energy required to produce any sensation, 50 percent of the time

visual messages/cues that require two eyes (retinal disparity, convergence)

place on the retina out where the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptors (rods/cones) are located here

snail-shaped structure in the inner ear; contains fluid that vibrate; attach the oval window and basilar membrane

visual receptor cells; located in retina; works best in bright light; responsible for viewing color; greatest density in the fovea

binoculars cue; visual depth cue; muscles controlling eye movement as the eyes turned inward to view a nearby stimulus

Just Noticeable Difference (JND); the smallest change in stimulation that you can detect 50% of the time; differs from one person to the other (and from moment to moment); tells us the flexibility of sensory systems

Starts with basic sensory information; transduction

Constructing perceptions based on our experiences and expectations

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, like the cocktail effect (notice your name in a crowd)

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

failing to notice changes in the environment.

color, or aspects of colors

the color part of the eye; made of muscle that contracts/relaxes to control the size of the people allowing light to enter the eye

sense of muscle movement, posture, and strain on muscles/joints; provides information on speed and direction of movement; works with vestibular sense

transparent part of the eye behind the iris; focuses light on the retina (accommodation); change shape to focus on objects;-if object is closed, muscles attach to the land contract to make lens around,-if object is far away, the muscles pull to flatten the lens

The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

States that circumstances, experiences, expectations affect our thresholds

Sensory information that is detected without our conscious knowledge

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.

created by Edward Hering; alternative theory used to explain after images; suggest that the retina contains three pairs color receptors or cones-yellow-blue, red-green, black-white; pairs work in opposition (thalamus)

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from longer/red, shorter/blue

bundle of axons from ganglion cells that carries messages from the eye to the brain

The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

the mental process of sorting, identifying, and arranging raw sensory data into meaningful patterns

The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision, hearing

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green Christmas, yellow-blue Michigan, white-black) enable color vision.

auditory experience corresponding to the frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone

brain determines pitch by the place on the basilar membrane, works best for high pitch

small opening in the center of the iris

the light-sensitive inner lining of the back of the eyeball; contains receptor cells (rods/cones)

binocular distance cue; based on the overlay of two retinal fields when both eyes focus on one object

visual receptor cell; located in retina; respond to varying degrees of light and dark; responsible for night vision and peripheral vision

in perception, the ability to adjust to an idea or mind set

the raw data of experience; sensory stimulation; example are eyes only register light energy and ears only register wave energy

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

the perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed; example someone height

The sense of hearing.

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (Hammer, Anvil, and Stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations (conduction) of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve by electrodes threaded into the cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tude in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.

created by Hermann von Helmholtz; theory of color vision based on additive color mixing; suggest that the retina contains three types of color receptors, cones: red, green, blue

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

A membrane inside the cochlea which vibrates in response to sound and whose vibrations lead to activity in the auditory pathways.

The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

sense of smell

groups of cells located on the tongue that enable one to recognize different tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salt)

Ernst Weber; the principle that accounts for how one notices the difference threshold for any change must be proportional

The spinal cord contains a "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. It's opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in large fibers or information coming from the brain.

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.

discovered feature detector groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual images

Theorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception.

Ability to see objects in three dimension although the image that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave-lengths reflected by the object

In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

Controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

Process by which the eye lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina