Fits and Tolerance

Fits and clearance

Shaft and hole type of fits

Steps in Thematic Analysis.Step 4: Reviewing themes Now we have to make sure that our themes are useful and accurate representations of the data. Here, we return to the data set and compare our themes against it. Are we missing anything? Are these themes really present in the data? What can we change to make our themes work better? If we encounter problems with our themes, we might split them up, combine them, discard them or create new ones: whatever makes them more useful and accurate. For example, we might decide upon looking through the data that “changing terminology” fits better under the “uncertainty” theme than under “distrust of experts,” since the data labelled with this code involves confusion, not necessarily distrust. Step 5: Defining and naming themes Now that you have a final list of themes, it’s time to name and define each of them. Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by each theme and figuring out how it helps us understand the data. Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily understandable name for each theme. For example, we might look at “distrust of experts” and determine exactly who we mean by “experts” in this theme. We might decide that a better name for the theme is “distrust of authority” or “conspiracy thinking”. Step 6: Writing up Finally, we’ll write up our analysis of the data. Like all academic texts, writing up a thematic analysis requires an introduction to establish our research question, aims and approach. We should also include a methodology section, describing how we collected the data (e.g. through semi-structured interviews or open-ended survey questions) and explaining how we conducted the thematic analysis itself. The results or findings section usually addresses each theme in turn. We describe how often the themes come up and what they mean, including examples from the data as evidence. Finally, our conclusion explains the main takeaways and shows how the analysis has answered our research question. In our example, we might argue that conspiracy thinking about climate change is widespread among older conservative voters, point out the uncertainty with which many voters view the issue, and discuss the role of misinformation in respondents’ perceptions.

FRANK BURSLEY TAYLOR(1908) He proposed that continental drift once happened. He believed that the continental drift happened without expansion. He suggested that the continents were dragged towards the equator because of increased Luna gravity during cretaceous, thus forming the Himalayas and Alps on the southern faces ALFRED WEGENER (1912) He was the first person to openly come up with the theory. He studied previous people's theory about continental drift and came up with his own. He noticed that the different landmasses fit together like a jigsaw. WRITTEN BY: RICHARD G. CHIO, Teacher III, ZCHS (Main) EVIDENCES OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY Evidence 1: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle The edge of one continent surprisingly fits the edge of another continent like a piece of a puzzle. These pieces of evidence #1 and #2 are instrumental in the Continental Drift Theory.

🔹 Quiz Title: “Which Deep Work Approach is This?” Question 1: Maya blocks off Monday–Wednesday for research, Thursday–Friday for teaching and admin. What deep work approach is she using? A) Monastic B) Bimodal ✅ C) Rhythmic D) Journalistic Correct Answer Explanation: ✅ Maya clearly separates deep work and shallow work by dedicating multiple days to each — this is a hallmark of the Bimodal approach. Question 2: Jon writes every morning from 8 to 11 AM, without fail. Which approach best fits Jon’s work style? A) Monastic B) Journalistic C) Rhythmic ✅ D) Bimodal Correct Answer Explanation: ✅ Jon has a regular daily rhythm of deep work — this is the Rhythmic approach. Question 3: Lina grabs any quiet 1–2 hour slot between her busy teaching days to do focused writing. What approach is she following? A) Monastic B) Journalistic ✅ C) Bimodal D) Rhythmic Correct Answer Explanation: ✅ Lina uses deep work opportunistically, fitting it into gaps in her unpredictable schedule — this is characteristic of the Journalistic approach. Question 4: Ali retreats to a rural cabin for 3 weeks to draft his dissertation in silence. What is Ali’s approach? A) Bimodal B) Rhythmic C) Monastic ✅ D) Journalistic Correct Answer Explanation: ✅ Ali isolates himself completely to focus on a single project — this reflects the Monastic approach. 🧩 Bonus Reflective Question (Open-ended – can be skipped in Quizalize or used in discussion): Question 5 (Reflection): Which deep work approach do you think best fits your current lifestyle? Why? (No correct answer; this is for self-awareness and discussion.)

CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of about one carbon atom to two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom. The number of carbon atoms in a carbohydrate varies. Some carbohydrates serve as a source of energy. Other carbohydrates are used as structural materials. Carbohydrates can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides A monomer of a carbohydrate is called a monosaccharide (MAHN-oh-SAK-uh-RIED). A monosaccharide—or simple sugar— contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. The gen- eral formula for a monosaccharide is written as (CH2O)n, where n is any whole number from 3 to 8. For example, a six-carbon mono- saccharide, (CH2O)6, would have the formula C6H12O6. The most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose, as shown in Figure 3-6. Glucose is a main source of energy for cells. Fructose is found in fruits and is the sweetest of the monosaccharides. Galactose is found in milk. Notice in Figure 3-6 that glucose, fructose, and galactose have the same molecular formula, C6H12O6, but differing structures. The different structures determine the slightly different properties of the three compounds. Compounds like these sugars, with a single chemical formula but different structural forms, are called isomers (IE-soh-muhrz). SECTION 2 OBJECTIVES ● Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. ● Explain the relationship between amino acids and protein structure. ● Describe the induced fit model of enzyme action. ● Compare the structure and function of each of the different types of lipids. ● Compare the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. VOCABULARY carbohydrate monosaccharide disaccharide polysaccharide protein amino acid peptide bond polypeptide enzyme substrate active site lipid fatty acid phospholipid wax steroid nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ribonucleic acid (RNA) nucleotide C HO H C H OH C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Glucose C OH C O H OH C OH H CH2OH C H CH2OH Fructose C H HO C OH H C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Galactose Glucose, fructose, and galactose have the same chemical formula, but their structural differences result in different properties among the three compounds. FIGURE 3-6 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 56 CHAPTER 3 Disaccharides and Polysaccharides In living things, two monosaccharides can combine in a condensa- tion reaction to form a double sugar, or disaccharide (die-SAK-e-RIED). For example in Figure 3-4, the monosaccharides fructose and glu- cose can combine to form the disaccharide sucrose. A polysaccharide is a complex molecule composed of three or more monosaccharides. Animals store glucose in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen. Glycogen consists of hundreds of glucose molecules strung together in a highly branched chain. Much of the glucose that comes from food is ultimately stored in your liver and muscles as glycogen and is ready to be used for quick energy. Plants store glucose molecules in the form of the polysaccha- ride starch. Starch molecules have two basic forms—highly branched chains that are similar to glycogen and long, coiled, unbranched chains. Plants also make a large polysaccharide called cellulose. Cellulose, which gives strength and rigidity to plant cells, makes up about 50 percent of wood. In a single cellu- lose molecule, thousands of glucose monomers are linked in long, straight chains. These chains tend to form hydrogen bonds with each other. The resulting structure is strong and can be broken down by hydrolysis only under certain conditions. PROTEINS Proteins are organic compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Like most of the other biological macromolecules, proteins are formed from the linkage of monomers called amino acids. Hair and horns, as shown in Figure 3-7a, are made mostly of proteins, as are skin, muscles and many biological catalysts (enzymes). Amino Acids There are 20 different amino acids, and all share a basic structure. As Figure 3-7b shows, each amino acid contains a central carbon atom covalently bonded to four other atoms or functional groups. A single hydrogen atom, highlighted in blue in the illustration, bonds at one site. A carboxyl group, —COOH, highlighted in green, bonds at a second site. An amino group, —NH2, highlighted in yel- low, bonds at a third site. A side chain called the R group, high- lighted in red, bonds at the fourth site. The main difference among the different amino acids is in their R groups. The R group can be complex or it can be simple, such as the CH3 group shown in the amino acid alanine in Figure 3-7b. The differences among the amino acid R groups gives different proteins very different shapes. The different shapes allow pro- teins to carry out many different activities in living things. Amino acids are commonly shown in a simplified way such as balls, as shown in Figure 3-7c. (a) Many structures, such as hair and horns are made of proteins. (b) Proteins are made up of amino acids. Amino acids differ only in the type of R group (shown in red) they carry. Polar R groups can dissolve in water, but nonpolar R groups cannot. (c) Amino acids have complex structures, so, in this and other textbooks, they are often simplified into balls. FIGURE 3-7 (b) Alanine (an amino acid) (c) Simplified version of amino acid CH3 H N OH C C H O H (a) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. BIOCHEMISTRY 57 H H N C C OH H O H CH3 H2O Glycine Alanine H N OH C C H O H H H N C C H O H CH3 N OH C C H O H (a) (b) (a) The peptide bond (shaded blue) that binds amino acids together to form a polypeptide results from a condensation reaction that produces water. (b) Poly- peptides are commonly shown as a string of balls in this textbook and elsewhere. Each ball represents an amino acid. FIGURE 3-8 Substrate Products Enzyme 1 2 3 In the induced fit model of enzyme action, the enzyme can attach only to a substrate (reactant) with a specific shape. The enzyme then changes and reduces the activation energy of the reaction so reactants can become products. The enzyme is unchanged and is available to be used again. 3 2 1 FIGURE 3-9 Dipeptides and Polypeptides Figure 3-8a shows how two amino acids bond to form a dipeptide (die-PEP-TIED). In this condensation reaction, the two amino acids form a covalent bond, called a peptide bond (shaded in blue in Figure 3-8a) and release a water molecule. Amino acids often form very long chains called polypeptides (PAHL-i-PEP-TIEDZ). Proteins are composed of one or more polypep- tides. Some proteins are very large molecules, containing hun- dreds of amino acids. Often, these long proteins are bent and folded upon themselves as a result of interactions—such as hydrogen bonding—between individual amino acids. Protein shape can also be influenced by conditions such as temperature and the type of solvent in which a protein is dissolved. For exam- ple, cooking an egg changes the shape of proteins in the egg white. The firm, opaque result is very different from the initial clear, runny material. Enzymes Enzymes—RNA or protein molecules that act as biological catalysts—are essential for the functioning of any cell. Many enzymes are proteins. Figure 3-9 shows an induced fit model of enzyme action. Enzyme reactions depend on a physical fit between the enzyme molecule and its specific substrate, the reactant being catalyzed. Notice that the enzyme has folds, or an active site, with a shape that allows the substrate to fit into the active site. An enzyme acts only on a specific substrate because only that substrate fits into its active site. The linkage of the enzyme and substrate causes a slight change in the enzyme’s shape. The change in the enzyme’s shape weakens some chemical bonds in the substrate, which is one way that enzymes reduce activation energy, the energy needed to start the reaction. After the reaction, the enzyme releases the products. Like any catalyst, the enzyme itself is unchanged, so it can be used many times. An enzyme may not work if its environment is changed. For example, change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the shape of the enzyme or the substrate. If such a change happens, the reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot occur.

Uzzle, the Football Star Uzzle loves football. He plays it at the playground. He even dreams about it at night. One day, he and Jupe see a football helmet in a store window. "If I had that helmet, I would be a star," he says. Uzzle looks at the price. "It costs too much money," he says. "Maybe there is a helmet like that at a thrift store," says Jupe. "Great idea!" says Uzzle. Uzzle and Jupe go to the thrift store. There are cowboy hats. There are baseball caps. But there are no football helmets. They go to another thrift store. There are hard hats. There are top hats. But there are no football helmets. They go to the last thrift store. Uzzle sees a football helmet! Uzzle tries it on. The helmet slips over his eyes. "Does it fit?" asks Jupe. "It is too big, but monster heads grow fast," says Uzzle. Uzzle wears his too-big football helmet. He bumps into walls. He trips on the curb. He tips the helmet to look in the mirror. "I look like a star," he says. He goes to the playground. Jupe is there. "You can't play football in a too-big helmet," she says. "Yes, I can," says Uzzle. But Uzzle can't pass, punt, or kick. Instead, he misses, trips, and falls. Just then, Lurk comes to play football. Uzzle tips his helmet. He sees that Lurk's head is much bigger than his head. "That's a cool helmet," Lurk says. Uzzle thinks. "I wish I had a helmet like that," Lurk says. Uzzle thinks some more. Finally, Uzzle takes off the too-big helmet. "It doesn't fit me, but maybe it will fit you," Uzzle says. Lurk slips it on. "It fits!" he says. "Thank you, Uzzle!" Then Uzzle, Jupe, and Lurk play football. Uzzle can pass agaín. He can punt and kick again. He can even score! "You're a star even without that too-big helmet," says Jupe. "I am?" says Uzzle. "You are," says Lurk in his helmet that is just right!

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