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Food Chains, Producers, and Consumers
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What is oxygen?
What is soil?
What is Stomata?
What do plants need to grow?
What is the largest living thing in the world?
What is a decomposer?
What is a fungus?
What is mold?
What is compost?
Write four sentences about any information that you learned about the Biosphere 2 experiment.
All animals, most protists, all fungi, and many bacteria are het- erotrophs. Unlike autotrophs, heterotrophs cannot manufacture their own food. Instead, they get energy by eating other organisms or organic wastes. Ecologically speaking, heterotrophs are consumers. They obtain energy by consuming organic molecules made by other organisms. Consumers can be grouped according to the type of food they eat. Herbivores eat producers. An antelope that eats grass is a herbivore. Carnivores eat other consumers. Lions, cobras, and praying mantises are examples of carnivores. Omnivores eat both producers and consumers. The grizzly bear, whose diet ranges from berries to salmon, is an omnivore. Detritivores (dee-TRIET-uh-VAWRZ) are consumers that feed on the “garbage” of an ecosystem. This waste, or detritus, includes organisms that have recently died, fallen leaves, and animal wastes. The vulture shown in Figure 18-8 is a detritivore. Many bacteria and fungi are detritivores that cause decay by breaking down complex molecules into simpler molecules. So, they are specifically called decomposers. Some of the molecules released during decay are absorbed by the decomposers, and some are returned to the soil or water. Decomposers make the nutrients that were contained in detritus available again to the autotrophs in the ecosystem. Thus, the process of decomposition recycles chemical nutrients. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 368 CHAPTER 18 ENERGY FLOW When one organism eats another, molecules are metabolized and energy is transferred. As a result, energy flows through an ecosystem, moving from producers to consumers. One way to follow the pattern of energy flow is to group organisms in an ecosystem based on how they obtain energy. An organism’s trophic (TRAHF-ik) level indicates the organism’s position in a sequence of energy transfers. For exam- ple, all producers belong to the first trophic level. Herbivores belong to the second trophic level, and the predators belong to the third level. Most terrestrial ecosystems have only three or four trophic lev- els, whereas marine ecosystems often have more. Food Chains and Food Webs A food chain is a single pathway of feeding relationships among organisms in an ecosystem that results in energy transfer. A food chain may begin with grass, which is a primary producer. The chain may continue with a consumer of grass seeds—a meadow mouse. Next, a carnivorous snake may kill and eat the mouse. A hawk then may eat the snake, as shown in Figure 18-9. The feeding relationships in an ecosystem are usually too com- plex to be represented by a single food chain. Many consumers eat more than one type of food. In addition, more than one species of consumer may feed on the same organism. Many food chains inter- link, and a diagram of the feeding relationships among all the organisms in an ecosystem would resemble a web, as shown in Figure 18-10. For this reason, the interrelated food chains in an ecosystem are called a food web.Create a review game for 9th grade biology students using the following topics Levels of Organization in an ecosystem- population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere Abiotic and Biotic Factors Differences between Food chains and food webs Trophic Levels Producers vs Consumers, Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs Effects of Greenhouse gases and their effects on global systems. Biome examples Photosynthesis vs cellular respiration Types of Consumers Ecological Pyramids 10% rule Cycles of Matter/ Nutrient Cycles- Water Cycle, Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Phosphorus Cycle (note on the diagrams… the bigger the arrow, the larger amount of matter that moves through the cycle from that point to the next. Macromolecules- Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids Nitrogen fixation Denitrification Eutrophication The usable form on nitrogen for plants is nitrate Population density and distribution-random, dispersed and clumped Birth rate and death rate Survivorship curves- Type I, II, and III Density dependent factors Density independent factors Exponential growth- J curve = unlimited resources, no limiting factors Logistical Growth-S curve= limiting factors, carrying capacity Symbiotic Relationships- Competition, predation, Herbivory, mutualism, parasitism, commensalism What is an invasive species? Why might countries limit certain species to coming into a new country or area? What is mycorrhizal? Succession- Primary vs Secondary Pioneer Species Climax community Biodiversity Climate change Food Chain and Food Web Vocabulary Quiz: Thursday, October 31st Vocabulary Word Definition Producer An organism that makes its own food. Consumer An animal that eats plants or other animals. Decomposer An organism that breaks down dead plant and animal material. Photosynthesis The process by which plants make their own food using sunlight Food Chain A series of organisms that depend on one another for food. Food Web Several food chains that are connected. Community All the living things in one place that interact. Ecosystem The living and nonliving things that share an environment and interact. Population All the members of a single type of organism in an ecosystem. Omnivore An animal that eats both plants and animals. Herbivore An animal that feeds on just plants. Carnivore An animal that feeds on meat or flesh of an animal.Management and Globalization Global Management Why companies go global How companies for global Global Business environments Global Business Types of global business Pros and cons of global businesses Ethnic Challenges for global business Culture and Global Diversity Cultural intelligence Silent language of culture Tight and loose cultures Values and national cultures Global Management Learning Are management theories universal? Intercultural competencies Global learning goals Key concepts of the challenges of globalisation: Global economy Resources, markets and competition are worldwide in scope Internationalisation The process of increasing involvement in international operations Globalization/Deglobalization Glob- the growing interdependence among elements in the global economy The worldwide interdependence of resource flows, product markets and business competition World 3.0 Different views: World flat vs. round Distance is a metaphor that represents the degree of dissimilarities between countries Balancing cooperation in the global Global Management Global management - managing things in different countries Managing business and organizations with interests in more than one country What do we expect from global Managers Knowing how to adapt Knowing the language Global Manager Is culturally aware and informed on international affairs International Business Conducting for-profit transactions of goods and services across national boundaries International Motive Why do firms internatioalize their activities Cheaper labour Labour tax Natural resources Enrolments to do business Clientele Exclusive materials Personal benefits: Taxes Reasons why businesses go global Customers Suppluers Capital During (1993) - 4 motive 1. Market seeking 2. Efficiency Seeking 3. Resource seeking 4. Strategic Asset Seeking Cuervo Cazurra, Narula and un (2015) - 4 motive s Internationalization Motives A company may also explore the opportunities in different markets in order to take advantage and in some cases extend the product life cycle What is a Market Entry Strategy Involves the sale of goods or services to foreign markets but do not require expensive investments Franchising Exporting and importing Involve the sale of goods or services to foreign markets but do Types of market entry strategies Global sourcing Exporting Importing Licensing agreement Franchising Types of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) strategies: Joint venture Strategic alliance Owned Subsidiary (sometimes called WOS) How to go abroad What conditions will affect the decisions of firms on how to internationalize their activities? During (1978)- Eclectic paradigm OLI model OLI- Ownership, Location and Internalization Advantages Ownership advantages Resources owned by the organization that can be transferred across locations include trademarks, production techniques and processes, managerial skills and other resources not available to the competitors Location Advantages Represent the implications of choosing to produce or to perform activities in a specific location (country or region) Internalization Advantages: The ability to internalize or to incorporate activities that add value to its business Evolution of Concepts- New Elements Although economic factors are certainly important to explain the formation, growth and expansion of firms within and across national borders, they are not sufficient to explain the additional complexity when a firm decides to expand its activities across national borders Economic factors Investigate the economic elements that affect the internationalization of firms Behavioural Elements Explaining the additional challenges (and perhaps opportunities) a firm faces in foreign host countries when compared to indigenous (local) firms Behavioural theories Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul (1975) and Johanson and Vahlne (1977) Included the psychic Distance concept (beckerman,1956) to explain the internationalization behaviour of firms The Uppsala internationalization model Psychic distance is: the sum of factors preventing the flow of infomatio from and to the market Psychic Distance is a broad concept that includes several elements such as: language, culture, political systems, level of education, level of industrial development Firms behave in a “Risk Averse” manner It means that when the perceived risk goes down, the firm increase its commitment to the foreign market \ The Haier Group Data Strategy Big DATA and Small DATA The use of small data to satisfy individual customers’ needs, however, the book mentions a huge cultural shock at the plant in Camden, south caroline Ex: top down, hard hat colors and hierarchy Culutral Differnces can have a huge impact on the internationalization of firms Kogut and Singh (1988)- Cultural Distance Index First statsical study on the implication of ciltiral distance to the selection of entry mode When investigating in culturally distant countries, foreign firms can choose to partner with foreign firms in order to gain local knowledge and share the risk associated to the investment (higher commitment = higher risk) How Companies Go Global Global sourcing The process of purchasing materials or services around teh world for local use Exporting Selling locally made products in foreign markets Importing Buying foreign made products and selling them domestically Exports correspond to what percentage of Candain GDP What countries are the major trending partners of Canada Management and Globalization How Companies Go Global Licensing Agreement One firm pays a fee for rights to make or sell another company’s products What are the potential risks associated to licesning The case of new balance in China Franchising A fee is paid for the rights to use another firms name, branding and methods Insourcing Insourcing: refers to local job creation that results from foreign direct investment Types of insourcing Joint ventures: operate in a foreign country through co-ownership by foreign and local partners Strategic alliances: A partnership in which foreign and domestic firms share resources and knowledge for mutual gains Foreign subsidiaries: local operation completely owned by a foreign firm Criteria for choosing a joint venture partner: Familiarity with your firm’s major business String local workforce Values its customers Future expansion possibilities Strong local market for partner’s own products Good Profit potential Sound financial standing Global business environments Legal and poliical systems Trade agreements and trade barriers Regional economic alliances Legal and political systems Differing laws and practices regards Business ownership Negotiation and implementation of contracts Foreign currency exchange Protection of intellectual property rights Counterfeit merchandise Political risk Potential loss in value of foreign investment due to instability and political changes in the host country Political risk analysis (expertise/experience) Forecast political disruptions that threaten the value of a foreign investment Changes in the rules of the game Brexit US Trade Wars-mexico-China Other examples Bolivia, Venezuela, China De-globalization The process of weakening interdependence among nations Trade Agreements and trade Barriers World trade organization Most favourd nation status Tariffs Nontariss barriers (quotes, restrictions, etc.) Protectionism Regional Economic Alliances USMCA (replacment for the NAFTA-North American Free trade Agreement) EU- European Union APEC- Aisa Pacific Economic Copperation ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nationas SADC - Southern Africa Development Community MERCOSUR- Chapter 5- Global Management and Cultural Diversity (part 2) Review Types of global business Global corporation MNE (multinational enterprise) or MNC (multinational corporation) with extensive business operations in more than one foreign country Transnational corporation A global corporation that operates worldwide on borderless basis Some host country complaints about MNCs Host Country companits about MNCs: Excessive profits Interference with local government Domination of local economy Interference with local government Hiring the best local talent Limited technology transfer Disrespect for local customers Examples - War in Ukraine Disruption in global -value chains and increased pressure and interference of MNCs with local government Fertilizer imports in Brazil (one of the major producers of agricultural commodities) We must consider the triple bottom line and the impact in society, the environment and the economy $2.5 billion invest in potash mine in Brazill What about Globalization gap Large multinationals adn industrilizednaitons gaining disporoportinonally form globalization Globalization gap: Large multinational and industrialized nations gaining disproportionally from Globalization Some MNC complaints about host countries MNC Complaints about host countries: Profiit limitations Laws and regulations Overpirce resources Exploitative rules Foreign exchange restriction Failure to uphold contracts Mutual benefits for host countries and multinational companies Mutual benefits for host country and global corporation of MNC: Shared growth opportunities Shared income opportunities Shared learning opportunities Share development opportunities Develop projects together What are some of the ethical challenges for global business Ethincal challenges for global business Child labour Employmnet of children for worl otherwise done by adults Sweatshops Employment of workers at very low wages for long hours in poor working conditions Ex: Nike bad labour prices Unsafe working conditions Corruption Illegal practices that further one’s business interests Corrupiotn of froeign public officials Act makes it illegal for Candain firms and their representatives to engage in corrupt practices overseas Bribes to foreign officials Excessive commissions Non-monetary gifts Sweatshops Conflict materials What is culture Culture : The shared set of beliefs, values, and patterns of behvaiourr common to a group of people Food preferences Values and traditions Language and beliefs Religion Art music Life style Hofstede defines culture as: “The collectiv programing of teh mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others” What is culture shock Culture Shock: Confusion and discoumfert a person experiences in an unfaamiliar culture Stages to adjusting to a new culture Confusion Small vitorires The honeymoon Irritation and anger Reality Cultural Intelligence The ability to adapt and adjust to new cultures What is Ethnocentrism Tendency to consider one’s own culture as superior others Slinet languages of culture Contect Low context High context Space Proxemics Ex: personal space Time Monochronic Polychronic High and low contexts cultures Edward T.Hall (1959) Def: Part of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw on its meaning Low context cultures Emphizes communication via spoken or written words Countries like United States, Canada and Germany High context cultures Rely on nonverbal and situational cues as well as on spoken or written works Thailand Malaysia Time Monochronic cultures People tend to do one thing at a time Canda Polychronic cultures Time is used to accomplish many different things at once Egypt Space Proxemics Study of how people use space to communicate In North American people value “personal space’ Many Latin and Asian cultures expect much less personal space Tight and Loose Cultures Cultural tightness-looseness Tight = Strength of norms that govern social behvaviour Japan, Korea, Malaysia Loose = tolerance for any deviation from norms Australia, Brazil, Hungary Values and national cultures (Hofstede) Power distance Uncertainty avoidance Individalism-collectivism Masculinity-femininty Time Orientation Indulgence vs. Restraint Comparative management How management pratices systematically differ among countries and /or cultures Intercultural competencies Skills and personal characteristics that help us be successful in cross cultural situations Global Managers (know how to adapt) Need to successfully apply management functions across interantional boundaries Global Learning goals Not universal Engage critical thinking Look everywhere for new management ideas Always consider culture CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of about one carbon atom to two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom. The number of carbon atoms in a carbohydrate varies. Some carbohydrates serve as a source of energy. Other carbohydrates are used as structural materials. Carbohydrates can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides A monomer of a carbohydrate is called a monosaccharide (MAHN-oh-SAK-uh-RIED). A monosaccharide—or simple sugar— contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. The gen- eral formula for a monosaccharide is written as (CH2O)n, where n is any whole number from 3 to 8. For example, a six-carbon mono- saccharide, (CH2O)6, would have the formula C6H12O6. The most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose, as shown in Figure 3-6. Glucose is a main source of energy for cells. Fructose is found in fruits and is the sweetest of the monosaccharides. Galactose is found in milk. Notice in Figure 3-6 that glucose, fructose, and galactose have the same molecular formula, C6H12O6, but differing structures. The different structures determine the slightly different properties of the three compounds. Compounds like these sugars, with a single chemical formula but different structural forms, are called isomers (IE-soh-muhrz). SECTION 2 OBJECTIVES ● Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. ● Explain the relationship between amino acids and protein structure. ● Describe the induced fit model of enzyme action. ● Compare the structure and function of each of the different types of lipids. ● Compare the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. VOCABULARY carbohydrate monosaccharide disaccharide polysaccharide protein amino acid peptide bond polypeptide enzyme substrate active site lipid fatty acid phospholipid wax steroid nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ribonucleic acid (RNA) nucleotide C HO H C H OH C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Glucose C OH C O H OH C OH H CH2OH C H CH2OH Fructose C H HO C OH H C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Galactose Glucose, fructose, and galactose have the same chemical formula, but their structural differences result in different properties among the three compounds. FIGURE 3-6 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 56 CHAPTER 3 Disaccharides and Polysaccharides In living things, two monosaccharides can combine in a condensa- tion reaction to form a double sugar, or disaccharide (die-SAK-e-RIED). For example in Figure 3-4, the monosaccharides fructose and glu- cose can combine to form the disaccharide sucrose. A polysaccharide is a complex molecule composed of three or more monosaccharides. Animals store glucose in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen. Glycogen consists of hundreds of glucose molecules strung together in a highly branched chain. Much of the glucose that comes from food is ultimately stored in your liver and muscles as glycogen and is ready to be used for quick energy. Plants store glucose molecules in the form of the polysaccha- ride starch. Starch molecules have two basic forms—highly branched chains that are similar to glycogen and long, coiled, unbranched chains. Plants also make a large polysaccharide called cellulose. Cellulose, which gives strength and rigidity to plant cells, makes up about 50 percent of wood. In a single cellu- lose molecule, thousands of glucose monomers are linked in long, straight chains. These chains tend to form hydrogen bonds with each other. The resulting structure is strong and can be broken down by hydrolysis only under certain conditions. PROTEINS Proteins are organic compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Like most of the other biological macromolecules, proteins are formed from the linkage of monomers called amino acids. Hair and horns, as shown in Figure 3-7a, are made mostly of proteins, as are skin, muscles and many biological catalysts (enzymes). Amino Acids There are 20 different amino acids, and all share a basic structure. As Figure 3-7b shows, each amino acid contains a central carbon atom covalently bonded to four other atoms or functional groups. A single hydrogen atom, highlighted in blue in the illustration, bonds at one site. A carboxyl group, —COOH, highlighted in green, bonds at a second site. An amino group, —NH2, highlighted in yel- low, bonds at a third site. A side chain called the R group, high- lighted in red, bonds at the fourth site. The main difference among the different amino acids is in their R groups. The R group can be complex or it can be simple, such as the CH3 group shown in the amino acid alanine in Figure 3-7b. The differences among the amino acid R groups gives different proteins very different shapes. The different shapes allow pro- teins to carry out many different activities in living things. Amino acids are commonly shown in a simplified way such as balls, as shown in Figure 3-7c. (a) Many structures, such as hair and horns are made of proteins. (b) Proteins are made up of amino acids. Amino acids differ only in the type of R group (shown in red) they carry. Polar R groups can dissolve in water, but nonpolar R groups cannot. (c) Amino acids have complex structures, so, in this and other textbooks, they are often simplified into balls. FIGURE 3-7 (b) Alanine (an amino acid) (c) Simplified version of amino acid CH3 H N OH C C H O H (a) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. BIOCHEMISTRY 57 H H N C C OH H O H CH3 H2O Glycine Alanine H N OH C C H O H H H N C C H O H CH3 N OH C C H O H (a) (b) (a) The peptide bond (shaded blue) that binds amino acids together to form a polypeptide results from a condensation reaction that produces water. (b) Poly- peptides are commonly shown as a string of balls in this textbook and elsewhere. Each ball represents an amino acid. FIGURE 3-8 Substrate Products Enzyme 1 2 3 In the induced fit model of enzyme action, the enzyme can attach only to a substrate (reactant) with a specific shape. The enzyme then changes and reduces the activation energy of the reaction so reactants can become products. The enzyme is unchanged and is available to be used again. 3 2 1 FIGURE 3-9 Dipeptides and Polypeptides Figure 3-8a shows how two amino acids bond to form a dipeptide (die-PEP-TIED). In this condensation reaction, the two amino acids form a covalent bond, called a peptide bond (shaded in blue in Figure 3-8a) and release a water molecule. Amino acids often form very long chains called polypeptides (PAHL-i-PEP-TIEDZ). Proteins are composed of one or more polypep- tides. Some proteins are very large molecules, containing hun- dreds of amino acids. Often, these long proteins are bent and folded upon themselves as a result of interactions—such as hydrogen bonding—between individual amino acids. Protein shape can also be influenced by conditions such as temperature and the type of solvent in which a protein is dissolved. For exam- ple, cooking an egg changes the shape of proteins in the egg white. The firm, opaque result is very different from the initial clear, runny material. Enzymes Enzymes—RNA or protein molecules that act as biological catalysts—are essential for the functioning of any cell. Many enzymes are proteins. Figure 3-9 shows an induced fit model of enzyme action. Enzyme reactions depend on a physical fit between the enzyme molecule and its specific substrate, the reactant being catalyzed. Notice that the enzyme has folds, or an active site, with a shape that allows the substrate to fit into the active site. An enzyme acts only on a specific substrate because only that substrate fits into its active site. The linkage of the enzyme and substrate causes a slight change in the enzyme’s shape. The change in the enzyme’s shape weakens some chemical bonds in the substrate, which is one way that enzymes reduce activation energy, the energy needed to start the reaction. After the reaction, the enzyme releases the products. Like any catalyst, the enzyme itself is unchanged, so it can be used many times. An enzyme may not work if its environment is changed. For example, change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the shape of the enzyme or the substrate. If such a change happens, the reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot occur.PHOTOSYNTHESIS LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION 1. Photosystem II (PSII) – Light Absorption & Water Splitting • Light energy (photons) excites electrons in chlorophyll molecules. • These high-energy electrons leave PSII and are passed into the electron transport chain (ETC). • Meanwhile, water molecules are split (photolysis) into: o O₂ (released as a by-product into the atmosphere) o H⁺ ions (protons, which build up inside the thylakoid) o Electrons (e⁻), which replace the ones lost by PSII. 2. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) • Excited electrons move through protein carriers embedded in the thylakoid membrane. • As they move, their energy pumps H⁺ ions into the thylakoid space, creating a proton gradient (high H⁺ inside, low outside). 3. ATP Production (ATP Synthase) • The buildup of H⁺ ions acts like a “waterfall” of potential energy. • These protons flow back across the membrane through ATP synthase, a protein complex that acts like a turbine. • This flow drives the conversion of ADP + Pi → ATP, which provides energy for the Calvin cycle. 4. Photosystem I (PSI) • Electrons arriving from the ETC enter PSI. • Sunlight excites them again, boosting them to a higher energy level. 5. NADPH Production • The energized electrons are transferred to NADP⁺. • Along with a proton (H⁺), this forms NADPH, another energy carrier. • NADPH is then delivered to the Calvin cycle to help build glucose. End Products of Light-Dependent Reactions: • ATP (energy source for Calvin cycle) • NADPH (reducing power for glucose synthesis) • O₂ (released into the atmosphere as waste) Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) • These reactions do not directly require sunlight. • They occur in the stroma of the chloroplast (the fluid-filled space surrounding the thylakoids). • The inputs are ATP and NADPH (from light-dependent reactions) and CO₂ (from the atmosphere). • The outputs are glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and other carbohydrates. Think of the Calvin cycle as a factory that uses the energy and “raw materials” made in Stage I (ATP & NADPH) to build sugars. The 3 Main Steps of the Calvin Cycle 1. Carbon Fixation • CO₂ from the atmosphere enters the chloroplast and diffuses into the stroma. • Each CO₂ molecule attaches to a 5-carbon sugar called RuBP (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate). • This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBisCO (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase — the most abundant enzyme on Earth!). • The result is a short-lived 6-carbon compound, which immediately splits into two 3-carbon molecules called 3-PGA (3-phosphoglycerate). Summary: CO₂ + RuBP → 2 × 3-PGA 2. Reduction Phase • The 3-PGA molecules are “energized” and converted into G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate), a more energy-rich 3-carbon sugar. • This transformation requires: o ATP (provides energy) o NADPH (provides high-energy electrons and hydrogen atoms). • Some of the G3P molecules will eventually be combined to form glucose and other sugars. Summary: 3-PGA + ATP + NADPH → G3P 3. Regeneration of RuBP • Not all G3P molecules leave the cycle. Most of them are used to regenerate RuBP so the cycle can continue. • This regeneration also requires ATP. • For every 3 turns of the cycle, 5 G3P molecules are recycled to regenerate 3 molecules of RuBP. Summary: G3P + ATP → RuBP The Full Cycle Balance • To make one G3P molecule that can exit the cycle (and later form glucose), the cycle must run 3 times, fixing 3 molecules of CO₂. • To make one glucose molecule (C₆H₁₂O₆), the cycle must run 6 times (since glucose needs 6 carbon atoms). Inputs (for 1 glucose): • 6 CO₂ • 18 ATP • 12 NADPH Outputs: • 1 glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) • 18 ADP + 18 Pi • 12 NADP⁺ Day vs Night Clarification • The Calvin Cycle is called light-independent, but that doesn’t mean it only happens at night. • It usually happens during the day because it depends on ATP and NADPH, which are only produced in light-dependent reactions (when sunlight is available). Simplified Analogy • Carbon fixation = The factory brings in CO₂ as raw material. • Reduction = Workers use energy (ATP & NADPH) to shape the raw material into useful products (G3P). • Regeneration = Some products are recycled to keep the factory running (RuBP is re-formed). • Output = After enough cycles, the factory produces glucose, the “food” of the plant.Food chains, food webs, producers, consumers, decomposers, symbiosisProducers in a food chain