Form compound nous

Word combinations to form Compound Nouns.

Many of water’s biological functions stem from its chemical struc- ture. Recall that in the water molecule, H2O, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds. However, these atoms do not share the electrons equally. The oxygen atom has a greater ability to attract electrons to it because it pulls hydrogen’s electrons towards its nucleus. As a result, as shown in Figure 2-8, the region of the molecule where the oxygen atom is located has a partial negative charge, denoted with a , while the regions of the molecule where each of the two hydrogen atoms are located have partial positive charges, each of which are denoted with a . Thus, even though the total charge on a water molecule is neutral, the charge is unevenly distributed across the water molecule. Because of this uneven distribution of charge, water is called a polar compound. Notice also in Figure 2-8 that the three atoms in a water mole- cule are not arranged in a straight line as you might expect. Rather, the two hydrogen atoms bond with the single oxygen atom at an angle. SECTION 3 OBJECTIVES ● Describe the structure of a water molecule. ● Explain how water’s polar nature affects its ability to dissolve substances. ● Outline the relationship between hydrogen bonding and the different properties of water. ● Identify the roles of solutes and solvents in solutions. ● Differentiate between acids and bases. VOCABULARY polar hydrogen bond cohesion adhesion capillarity solution solute solvent concentration saturated solution aqueous solution hydroxide ion hydronium ion acid base pH scale buffer Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. (a) Electron cloud model (b) Space-filling model H H O The oxygen region of the water molecule is weakly negative, and the hydrogen regions are weakly positive. Notice the different ways to represent water, H2O. You are familiar with the electron cloud model (a). The space- filling model (b) shows the three- dimensional structure of a molecule. FIGURE 2-8 40 CHAPTER 2 Hydrogen bond H H H H H H H H H O O O O O O H H H H H – – – – – – – + + + + + + + + + + + + + + The dotted lines in this figure represent hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond is a force of attraction between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a negatively charged region or atom in a second molecule. FIGURE 2-10 The positive region of a water molecule attracts the negative region of an ionic compound, such as the Cl portion of NaCl. Similarly, the negative region of the water molecule attracts the positive region of the compound—the Na portion of NaCl. As a result, NaCl breaks apart, or dissolves, in water. FIGURE 2-9 CI– Na+ H2O + + – – Solubility of Water The polar nature of water allows it to dissolve polar substances, such as sugars, ionic compounds, and some proteins. Water does not dissolve nonpolar substances, such as oil because a weaker attraction exists between polar and nonpolar molecules than between two polar molecules. Figure 2-9 shows how water dissolves the ionic compound sodium chloride, NaCl. In your body, ions, such as sodium and chloride, are essential to bodily func- tions, such as muscle contraction and transmission of impulses in the nervous system. In fact, dissolved, or dissociated ions, are pre- sent in all of the aqueous solutions found in living things and are important in maintaining normal body functions. HYDROGEN BONDING The polar nature of water also causes water molecules to be attracted to one another. As is shown in Figure 2-10, the positively charged region of one water molecule is attracted to the negatively charged region of another water molecule. This attraction is called a hydrogen bond. A hydrogen bond is the force of attraction between a hydrogen molecule with a partial positive charge and another atom or molecule with a partial or full negative charge. Hydrogen bonds in water exert an attractive force strong enough so that water “clings” to itself and some other substances. Hydrogen bonds form, break, and reform with great frequency. However, at any one time, a great number of water molecules are bonded together. The number of hydrogen bonds that exist depends on the state that water is in. If water is in its solid state all its water molecules are hydrogen bonded and do not break. As water liquifies, more hydrogen bonds are broken than are formed, until an equal number of bonds are formed and broken. Hydrogen bonding accounts for the unique properties of water, some of which we will examine further. These properties include cohesion and adhesion, the ability of water to absorb a relatively large amount of energy as heat, the ability of water to cool surfaces through evaporation, the density of ice, and the ability of water to dissolve many substances.

For instance, carbon dioxide from the air or soil sometimes combines with water in a process called carbonation. This produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid, that can dissolve rock. Carbonic acid is especially effective at dissolving limestone. When carbonic acid seeps through limestone underground, it can open up huge cracks or hollow out vast networks of caves. Carlsbad Caverns National Park, in the U.S. state of New Mexico, includes more than 119 limestone caves created by weathering and erosion. The largest is called the Big Room.. With an area of about 33,210 square meters (357,469 square feet), the Big Room is the size of six football fields. Another type of chemical weathering works on rocks that contain iron. These rocks turn to rust in a process called oxidation. Rust is a compound created by the interaction of oxygen and iron in the presence of water. As rust expands, it weakens rock and helps break it apart. Another familiar form of chemical weathering is hydrolysis. In the process of hydrolysis, a new solution (a mixture of two or more substances) is formed as chemicals in rock interact with water. In many rocks, for example, sodium minerals interact with water to form a saltwater solution. Hydration and hydrolysis contribute to flared slopes, another dramatic example of a landscape formed by weathering and erosion. Flared slopes are sometimes nicknamed "wave rocks." Their c-shape is largely concave rock formations a result of subsurface weathering, in which hydration and hydrolysis wear away rocks beneath the landscape's surface

Covalent Molecules and Compounds Just as an atom is the simplest unit that has the fundamental chemical properties of an element, a molecule is the simplest unit that has the fundamental chemical properties of a covalent compound. Some pure elements exist as covalent molecules. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens occur naturally as the diatomic (“two atoms”) molecules H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2 (part (a) in Figure 3.1.1). Similarly, a few pure elements exist as polyatomic (“many atoms”) molecules, such as elemental phosphorus and sulfur, which occur as P4 and S8 (part (b) in Figure 3.1.1). Each covalent compound is represented by a molecular formula, which gives the atomic symbol for each component element, in a prescribed order, accompanied by a subscript indicating the number of atoms of that element in the molecule. The subscript is written only if the number of atoms is greater than 1. For example, water, with two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom per molecule, is written as H2O. Similarly, carbon dioxide, which contains one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms in each molecule, is written as CO2. Covalent compounds that predominantly contain carbon and hydrogen are called organic compounds. The convention for representing the formulas of organic compounds is to write carbon first, followed by hydrogen and then any other elements in alphabetical order (e.g., CH4O is methyl alcohol, a fuel). Compounds that consist primarily of elements other than carbon and hydrogen are called inorganic compounds; they include both covalent and ionic compounds. In inorganic compounds, the component elements are listed beginning with the one farthest to the left in the periodic table, as in CO2 or SF6. Those in the same group are listed beginning with the lower element and working up, as in ClF. By convention, however, when an inorganic compound contains both hydrogen and an element from groups 13–15, hydrogen is usually listed last in the formula. Examples are ammonia (NH3) and silane (SiH4). Compounds such as water, whose compositions were established long before this convention was adopted, are always written with hydrogen first: Water is always written as H2O, not OH2. The conventions for inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4), are described elswhere. Note! For organic compounds: write C first, then H, and then the other elements in alphabetical order. For molecular inorganic compounds: start with the element at far left in the periodic table; list elements in same group beginning with the lower element and working up. Write the molecular formula of each compound. a. The phosphorus-sulfur compound that is responsible for the ignition of so-called strike anywhere matches has 4 phosphorus atoms and 3 sulfur atoms per molecule. b. Ethyl alcohol, the alcohol of alcoholic beverages, has 1 oxygen atom, 2 carbon atoms, and 6 hydrogen atoms per molecule. c. Freon-11, once widely used in automobile air conditioners and implicated in damage to the ozone layer, has 1 carbon atom, 3 chlorine atoms, and 1 fluorine atom per molecule. Solution: a. • A The molecule has 4 phosphorus atoms and 3 sulfur atoms. Because the compound does not contain mostly carbon and hydrogen, it is inorganic. • B Phosphorus is in group 15, and sulfur is in group 16. Because phosphorus is to the left of sulfur, it is written first. • C Writing the number of each kind of atom as a right-hand subscript gives P4S3 as the molecular formula. b. • A Ethyl alcohol contains predominantly carbon and hydrogen, so it is an organic compound. • B The formula for an organic compound is written with the number of carbon atoms first, the number of hydrogen atoms next, and the other atoms in alphabetical order: CHO. • C Adding subscripts gives the molecular formula C2H6O. c. • A Freon-11 contains carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. It can be viewed as either an inorganic compound or an organic compound (in which fluorine has replaced hydrogen). The formula for Freon-11 can therefore be written using either of the two conventions. • B According to the convention for inorganic compounds, carbon is written first because it is farther left in the periodic table. Fluorine and chlorine are in the same group, so they are listed beginning with the lower element and working up: CClF. Adding subscripts gives the molecular formula CCl3F. • C We obtain the same formula for Freon-11 using the convention for organic compounds. The number of carbon atoms is written first, followed by the number of hydrogen atoms (zero) and then the other elements in alphabetical order, also giving CCl3F. Write the molecular formula for each compound. a. Nitrous oxide, also called “laughing gas,” has 2 nitrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom per molecule. Nitrous oxide is used as a mild anesthetic for minor surgery and as the propellant in cans of whipped cream. b. Sucrose, also known as cane sugar, has 12 carbon atoms, 11 oxygen atoms, and 22 hydrogen atoms. c. Sulfur hexafluoride, a gas used to pressurize “unpressurized” tennis balls and as a coolant in nuclear reactors, has 6 fluorine atoms and 1 sulfur atom per molecule. Answer: a. N2O b. C12H22O11 c. SF6. Ionic Compounds The substances described in the preceding discussion are composed of molecules that are electrically neutral; that is, the number of positively-charged protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of negatively-charged electrons. In contrast, ions are atoms or assemblies of atoms that have a net electrical charge. Ions that contain fewer electrons than protons have a net positive charge and are called cations. Conversely, ions that contain more electrons than protons have a net negative charge and are called anions. Ionic compounds contain both cations and anions in a ratio that results in no net electrical charge. Note! Ionic compounds contain both cations and anions in a ratio that results in zero electrical charge.An ionic compound that contains only two elements, one present as a cation and one as an anion, is called a binary ionic compound. One example is MgCl2, a coagulant used in the preparation of tofu from soybeans. For binary ionic compounds, the subscripts in the empirical formula can also be obtained by crossing charges: use the absolute value of the charge on one ion as the subscript for the other ion. This method is shown schematically as follows: Crossing charges. One method for obtaining subscripts in the empirical formula is by crossing charges. When crossing charges, it is sometimes necessary to reduce the subscripts to their simplest ratio to write the empirical formula. Consider, for example, the compound formed by Mg2+ and O2−. Using the absolute values of the charges on the ions as subscripts gives the formula Mg2O2:Polyatomic Ions Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that bear net electrical charges, although the atoms in a polyatomic ion are held together by the same covalent bonds that hold atoms together in molecules. Just as there are many more kinds of molecules than simple elements, there are many more kinds of polyatomic ions than monatomic ions. Two examples of polyatomic cations are the ammonium (NH4+) and the methylammonium (CH3NH3+) ions. P. The method used to predict the empirical formulas for ionic compounds that contain monatomic ions can also be used for compounds that contain polyatomic ions. The overall charge on the cations must balance the overall charge on the anions in the formula unit. Thus, K+ and NO3− ions combine in a 1:1 ratio to form KNO3 (potassium nitrate or saltpeter), a major ingredient in black gunpowder. Similarly, Ca2+ and SO42− form CaSO4 (calcium sulfate), which combines with varying amounts of water to form gypsum and plaster of Paris. The polyatomic ions NH4+ and NO3− form NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate), a widely used fertilizer and, in the wrong hands, an explosive. One example of a compound in which the ions have charges of different magnitudes is calcium phosphate, which is composed of Ca2+ and PO43− ions; it is a major component of bones. The compound is electrically neutral because the ions combine in a ratio of three Ca2+ ions [3(+2) = +6] for every two ions [2(−3) = −6], giving an empirical formula of Ca3(PO4)2; the parentheses around PO4 in the empirical formula indicate that it is a polyatomic ion. Writing the formula for calcium phosphate as Ca3P2O8 gives the correct number of each atom in the formula unit, but it obscures the fact that the compound contains readily identifiable PO43− ions.Summary • There are two fundamentally different kinds of chemical bonds (covalent and ionic) that cause substances to have very different properties. • The composition of a compound is represented by an empirical or molecular formula, each consisting of at least one formula unit.Contributors The atoms in chemical compounds are held together by attractive electrostatic interactions known as chemical bonds. Ionic compounds contain positively and negatively charged ions in a ratio that results in an overall charge of zero. The ions are held together in a regular spatial arrangement by electrostatic forces. Most covalent compounds consist of molecules, groups of atoms in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by at least two atoms to form a covalent bond. The atoms in molecules are held together by the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and the negatively charged electrons shared by the nuclei. The molecular formula of a covalent compound gives the types and numbers of atoms present. Compounds that contain predominantly carbon and hydrogen are called organic compounds, whereas compounds that consist primarily of elements other than carbon and hydrogen are inorganic compounds. Diatomic molecules contain two atoms, and polyatomic molecules contain more than two. A structural formula indicates the composition and approximate structure and shape of a molecule. Single bonds, double bonds, and triple bonds are covalent bonds in which one, two, and three pairs of electrons, respectively, are shared between two bonded atoms. Atoms or groups of atoms that possess a net electrical charge are called ions; they can have either a positive charge (cations) or a negative charge (anions). Ions can consist of one atom (monatomic ions) or several (polyatomic ions). The charges on monatomic ions of most main group elements can be predicted from the location of the element in the periodic table. Ionic compounds usually form hard crystalline solids with high melting points. Covalent molecular compounds, in contrast, consist of discrete molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces and can be gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature and pressure. An empirical formula gives the relative numbers of atoms of the elements in a compound, reduced to the lowest whole numbers. The formula unit is the absolute grouping represented by the empirical formula of a compound, either ionic or covalent. Empirical formulas are particularly useful for describing the composition of ionic compounds, which do not contain readily identifiable molecules. Some ionic compounds occur as hydrates, which contain specific ratios of loosely bound water molecules called waters of hydration.

Classification of plants • Plants can be classified as cultivated and wild plants. • Both cultivated and wild plants are very useful to people, animals and the environment. 1. Cultivated plants: • Cultivated plants are plants grown by people for selling. • They can be grown in the field, vegetable garden, home garden and orchard. Classification of plants 2. Wild plants Wild plants are plants that grow on their own outside the garden, orchard or field. They have many uses such as: • Food for people and animals • Shelter • Source of fuel in form of firewood. • Examples include, grasses, msasa, yellow wood, mahogany, mopane Plant Nutrition • The presence of plant nutrients in the soil make them grow well. • The three major plant nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Sources of plant nutrients • The source for plant nutrients are grouped into organic and inorganic sources. Organic sources of plant nutrients • These are found in nature. • They are natural materials such, decayed plant and animal matter which include: • Animal manure from cattle, sheep, goats, poultry and pigs. • Green manure • Legume crops like beans, peas and groundnuts. • Humus • These material sources may also be called natural fertilizers. Inorganic sources of plant nutrients • These are sources of plant nutrients made by people in industries. They include: • Compound fertilizers like compound A, B, C and D. • These have two or more nutrients. • Straight fertilizers like ammonium nitrate, single super phosphate and urea. • A straight fertilizer supplies a single or more nutrient to the crop. A straight fertilizer A Compound fertilizer Sources of N,P,K • Ammonium nitrate and Urea- contain nitrogen Double super Phosphate, Single super phosphate-contain phosphorus • Muriate of Potash contains Potassium 2 . Compound fertilisers -have two or three of the three major plant nutrients (N.P.K). N-nitrogen P-phosphorus K-potassium Examples Compound D Wednesday 17 May 2023 Revision exercise (Plant nutrition) 1 .Name the 3 plant nutrients needed by plants. 2. What are the 2 groups of plant nutrients sources? 3. Give 3 examples of organic sources of plant nutrients. 4. What is a straight fertilizer? 5. Compound fertilizer supplies ……………or ………………. Nutrients. Vegetable crops • A vegetable is any part of a plant that is eaten by humans as food part of a meal. • Vegetables are grouped and named according to the part that is eaten. • These are leaf, root, fruit, flower, bulb, tuber and legume vegetables. Leaf vegetables Types of veg Legume etable cropsvegetables Fruit vegetables Root, bulb and tuber Flower vegetables Cabbage Peas Tomato Root: carrots Cauliflower Rape Green beans Pepper Parsnip broccoli Spinach Melons Beetroot Tsunga Cucumber Bulb: onion Lettuce Squash Garlic kale Egg plant Leek chillies Tuber: Irish potato Wednesday 31 May 2023 Vegetable crops 1. What is a vegetable? 2. Which one is not a vegetable from the list below? a. Covo B. cabbage C. wheat D. tomato 3. Choose a vegetable which is not a fruit vegetable. a. tomato B. pepper C. kale D. egg plant 4. From which pair of vegetables do we eat the flower? A. cauliflower and garlic B. broccoli and cauliflower C. broccoli and rape D. cauliflower and pepper 5. Give one example of a vegetable belonging to each of the following groups. a. root b. legume c. bulb 6. Name any 5 groups of vegetable classification according to the parts eaten. Growing leaf vegetables • Although there are many types of vegetables, the leaf, fruit and bulb vegetables are widely grown. • Leaf vegetables form the greater part of vegetable crops. • Leaf vegetables belong to a family called brassica. • Brassicas include cabbages, lettuce, spinach, covo and many others. • Each brassica family has got its own varieties called cultivar. • They usually grow under the same climatic conditions and are affected by the same pests and diseases. • The selection of a variety depends on the following : The intended use of the vegetable, for example, salad, stew or snacks. Days taken to mature. Disease resistant Season of the year Seedbed preparation • Brassica vegetables are usually raised in seedbeds. • The seedbeds are prepared by: • Marking the position of the bed 1 meter in width by any length using a tape measure, hammer and pegs. • Digging a seedbed to a depth of 25 to 30cm using a hoe. • Breaking lumps of soil using a garden rake. Soil requirements • Brassicas need: • Well drained soils. • Fertile soil for good growth • Slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5-6) Climatic requirements • Brassicas need cool to warm temperatures. • Very low temperatures cause cabbages to flower which is called bolting. • Brassicas can be grown throughout the year. Seedbed preparation • Brassica seedlings are usually raised in seedbeds. • A seedbed is prepared by: Marking the position of the bed 1 metre in width by any length using a tape measure, hammer and pegs. Digging a seedbed to depth of 25 to 30 cm using a hoe. Breaking lumps of soil using a garden rake. This is done in order to have a fine tilth and improve soil to seed contact. Making ridges that a 15cm high. Apply 3 to 5kg/m² of well decomposed manure. 60 to 100g/m² of compound fertilizer can be added into the soil. Management of vegetable crops • After transplanting the seedlings, the seedlings need to be looked after. (a)Controlling weeds: all vegetables must be kept weed free. • This is done either by hand pulling weeds or shallow cultivation using a hand fork. (b) Pest control: common pests that affect the brassicas are aphids and diamond black moth larva. • Aphids are small green insects that suck the juice from the leaves leaving them with curls. • They are controlled by spraying malathion using the instructions on the label. (c) Disease control: bacterial diseases are common in brassicas. • Common diseases are black rot and soft rot, especially in cabbages. • These are controlled by: Crop rotation Early planting Planting resistant cultivars (d) Top dressing: brassicas are top dressed using Ammonium Nitrate at a rate of 2.5g per plant. • Top dressing is usually done 3 or 4 weeks after germination. FIELD CROPS • Field crops are crops that are grown on a large piece of land. • Example of field crops:  Maize  Cotton  Groundnuts  Roundnuts  Wheat  Sunflower  Tobacco  Sugar cane  Tea  Coffee  Soya beans  sorghum Classification of field • Field crops can be classified according to use such crops cereal, fibre, sugar and oil. 1. Cereal crops: • A cereal is a grass grown for its edible seeds. • They are also known as grain crops. • The major cereal crops are maize, wheat, rice, barley, sorghum and millet. 2 . fiber crops : • these are crops which are grown for their fiber and are used in making textiles, ropes and rugs. • Important fiber crops are cotton, flax and sisal 3. Oil seed crops: • These crops are grown for the purpose of extracting oil from their seed. • The main oil seed crops are groundnuts, sunflower, soyabean and cotton seed. 4 . Sugar crops : • Sugar crops include sugarcane,

LARGE CARBON MOLECULES Many carbon compounds are built up from smaller, simpler molecules known as monomers (MAH-ne-mers), such as the ones shown in Figure 3-3. As you can also see in Figure 3-3, monomers can bond to one another to form polymers (PAWL-eh-mer). A polymer is a molecule that consists of repeated, linked units. The units may be identical or structurally related to each other. Large polymers are called macromolecules. There are many types of macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Monomers link to form polymers through a chemical reaction called a condensation reaction. Each time a monomer is added to a polymer, a water molecule is released. In the condensation reac- tion shown in Figure 3-4, two sugar molecules, glucose and fruc- tose, combine to form the sugar sucrose, which is common table sugar. The two sugar monomers become linked by a C—O—C bridge. In the formation of that bridge, the glucose molecule releases a hydrogen ion, H, and the fructose molecule releases a hydroxide ion, OH. The OH and H ions that are released then combine to produce a water molecule, H2O. In addition to building polymers through condensation reac- tions, living organisms also have to break them down. The break- down of some complex molecules, such as polymers, occurs through a process known as hydrolysis (hie-DRAHL-i-sis). In a hydrolysis reaction, water is used to break down a polymer. The water molecule breaks the bond linking each monomer. Hydrolysis is the reverse of a condensation reaction. The addition of water to some complex molecules, including polymers, under certain con- ditions can break the bonds that hold them together. For example, in Figure 3-4 reversing the reaction will result in sucrose breaking down into fructose and glucose. 2H2O Monomers Polymer C C O H OH C OH H CH2OH C H CH2OH C HO H C O H C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Sucrose C C O H OH C OH H CH2OH C H CH2OH C HO H C OH OH H C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Glucose Fructose H2O The condensation reaction below shows how glucose links with fructose to form sucrose. One water molecule is produced each time two monomers form a covalent bond. FIGURE 3-4 monomer from the Greek mono, meaning “single or alone,” and meros, meaning “a part” Word Roots and Origins A polymer is the result of bonding between monomers. In this example, each monomer is a six-sided carbon ring. The starch in potatoes is an example of a molecule that is a polymer. FIGURE 3-3 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 54 CHAPTER 3 ENERGY CURRENCY Life processes require a constant supply of energy. This energy is available to cells in the form of certain compounds that store a large amount of energy in their overall structure. One of these com- pounds is adenosine (uh-DEN-uh-SEEN) triphosphate, more commonly referred to by its abbreviation, ATP. The left side of Figure 3-5 shows a simplified ATP molecule struc- ture. The 5-carbon sugar, ribose, is represented by the blue carbon ring. The nitrogen-containing compound, adenine, is represented by the 2 orange rings. The three linked phosphate groups, —PO4 , are represented by the blue circles with a “P.” The phospate groups are attached to each other by covalent bonds. The covalent bonds between the phosphate groups are more unstable than the other bonds in the ATP molecule because the phosphate groups are close together and have negative charges. Thus, the negative charges make the bonds easier to break. When a bond between the phosphate groups is broken, energy is released. This hydrolysis of ATP is used by the cell to provide the energy needed to drive the chemical reactions that enable an organism to function.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION 1. Photosystem II (PSII) – Light Absorption & Water Splitting • Light energy (photons) excites electrons in chlorophyll molecules. • These high-energy electrons leave PSII and are passed into the electron transport chain (ETC). • Meanwhile, water molecules are split (photolysis) into: o O₂ (released as a by-product into the atmosphere) o H⁺ ions (protons, which build up inside the thylakoid) o Electrons (e⁻), which replace the ones lost by PSII. 2. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) • Excited electrons move through protein carriers embedded in the thylakoid membrane. • As they move, their energy pumps H⁺ ions into the thylakoid space, creating a proton gradient (high H⁺ inside, low outside). 3. ATP Production (ATP Synthase) • The buildup of H⁺ ions acts like a “waterfall” of potential energy. • These protons flow back across the membrane through ATP synthase, a protein complex that acts like a turbine. • This flow drives the conversion of ADP + Pi → ATP, which provides energy for the Calvin cycle. 4. Photosystem I (PSI) • Electrons arriving from the ETC enter PSI. • Sunlight excites them again, boosting them to a higher energy level. 5. NADPH Production • The energized electrons are transferred to NADP⁺. • Along with a proton (H⁺), this forms NADPH, another energy carrier. • NADPH is then delivered to the Calvin cycle to help build glucose. End Products of Light-Dependent Reactions: • ATP (energy source for Calvin cycle) • NADPH (reducing power for glucose synthesis) • O₂ (released into the atmosphere as waste) Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) • These reactions do not directly require sunlight. • They occur in the stroma of the chloroplast (the fluid-filled space surrounding the thylakoids). • The inputs are ATP and NADPH (from light-dependent reactions) and CO₂ (from the atmosphere). • The outputs are glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and other carbohydrates. Think of the Calvin cycle as a factory that uses the energy and “raw materials” made in Stage I (ATP & NADPH) to build sugars. The 3 Main Steps of the Calvin Cycle 1. Carbon Fixation • CO₂ from the atmosphere enters the chloroplast and diffuses into the stroma. • Each CO₂ molecule attaches to a 5-carbon sugar called RuBP (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate). • This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBisCO (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase — the most abundant enzyme on Earth!). • The result is a short-lived 6-carbon compound, which immediately splits into two 3-carbon molecules called 3-PGA (3-phosphoglycerate). Summary: CO₂ + RuBP → 2 × 3-PGA 2. Reduction Phase • The 3-PGA molecules are “energized” and converted into G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate), a more energy-rich 3-carbon sugar. • This transformation requires: o ATP (provides energy) o NADPH (provides high-energy electrons and hydrogen atoms). • Some of the G3P molecules will eventually be combined to form glucose and other sugars. Summary: 3-PGA + ATP + NADPH → G3P 3. Regeneration of RuBP • Not all G3P molecules leave the cycle. Most of them are used to regenerate RuBP so the cycle can continue. • This regeneration also requires ATP. • For every 3 turns of the cycle, 5 G3P molecules are recycled to regenerate 3 molecules of RuBP. Summary: G3P + ATP → RuBP The Full Cycle Balance • To make one G3P molecule that can exit the cycle (and later form glucose), the cycle must run 3 times, fixing 3 molecules of CO₂. • To make one glucose molecule (C₆H₁₂O₆), the cycle must run 6 times (since glucose needs 6 carbon atoms). Inputs (for 1 glucose): • 6 CO₂ • 18 ATP • 12 NADPH Outputs: • 1 glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) • 18 ADP + 18 Pi • 12 NADP⁺ Day vs Night Clarification • The Calvin Cycle is called light-independent, but that doesn’t mean it only happens at night. • It usually happens during the day because it depends on ATP and NADPH, which are only produced in light-dependent reactions (when sunlight is available). Simplified Analogy • Carbon fixation = The factory brings in CO₂ as raw material. • Reduction = Workers use energy (ATP & NADPH) to shape the raw material into useful products (G3P). • Regeneration = Some products are recycled to keep the factory running (RuBP is re-formed). • Output = After enough cycles, the factory produces glucose, the “food” of the plant.

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