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Grace Hopper (1906-1992): An American computer scientist and U.S. Navy rear admiral. She was a pioneer in computer programming and developed the first compiler for a computer programming language, laying the groundwork for cobol. Garrett Augustus Morgan Sr. (1877-1963): An African American inventor who patented the traffic signal and the safety hood, a precursor to the modern gas mask. Hedy Lamarr (1914-2000): An Austrian-American actress and inventor who co-invented an early technique for spread spectrum communications, a key to modern wifi and bluetooth technology. Otis Boykin (1920-1982): An African American inventor who patented over 25 electronic devices, including a control unit for the pacemaker that is widely used today. Stephanie Kwolek (1923-2014): An American chemist who invented the synthetic fiber Kevlar, which is used in bulletproof vests and other protective equipment. Gladys West (b. 1930): An African American mathematician who played a crucial role in the development of the GPS technology we use today. Shirley Ann Jackson (b. 1946): An African American physicist who was the first African American woman to receive a doctorate at MIT and her work laid the foundations for the touch-tone telephone, caller ID, and call waiting. Tu Youyou (b. 1930): A Chinese pharmaceutical chemist who discovered artemisinin, a drug therapy that has significantly reduced the mortality rates for malaria, for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015. Chien-Shiung Wu (1912-1997): A Chinese-American physicist who made significant contributions to the Manhattan Project and disproved the hypothetical law of conservation of parity, for which her male colleagues received the Nobel Prize (she did not). Mária Telkes (1900-1995): A Hungarian-American biophysicist and architect dubbed the "Sun Queen" for her pioneering work in solar energy, including the development of the first solar-powered house. Percy Lavon Julian (1899-1975): An African American chemist and pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. Charles Ginsburg (1925-1992): An American engineer who led the team that developed the first commercial videotape recorder. Philo Farnsworth (1906-1971): An American inventor who developed an electronic television system and made major contributions to early television technology. María Montoya Martínez (1887-1980): A Native American (Tewa) potter from San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico, who helped revive the traditional black-on-black pottery style and is considered one of the most influential Pueblo potters of the 20th century. Satya Nadella (b. 1967): An Indian-American business executive who has been the chief executive officer of Microsoft since 2014, overseeing the company's transformation into a cloud computing powerhouse. Junko Tabei (1939-2016): A Japanese mountaineer who in 1975 became the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest, and the first woman to ascend the Seven Summits, climbing the highest peaks on each continent. Mildred Dresselhaus (1930-2017): An American physicist and engineer, known as the "Queen of Carbon Science," who made groundbreaking contributions to the study of carbon materials like graphite and carbon nanotubes. Ellen Ochoa (b. 1958): An American engineer and former astronaut. In 1993, she became the first Hispanic woman to go to space when she flew on the Space Shuttle Discovery. Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (b. 1947): A French virologist who co-discovered HIV as the cause of AIDS, for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008. Esther Lederberg (1922-2006): An American microbiologist who made significant contributions to genetics and microbiology, including the discovery of the bacterial virus lambda, but whose work was often overshadowed by her husband's Nobel Prize-winning accomplishments.Owls, such as the young snowy owls on the previous page, have for centuries been symbols of both wisdom and mystery. To many cultures their piercing eyes have conveyed a look of intelligence. Their silent flight through darkened landscapes in search of prey has projected an air of power or wonder. For this chapter and this book, owls are an engaging example of a living organism from the world of biology—the study of life. BIOLOGY AND YOU Living in a small town, in the country, or at the edge of the suburbs, one may be lucky enough to hear an owl's hooting. This experience can lead to questions about where the bird lives, what it hunts, and how it finds its prey on dark, moonless nights. Biology, or the study of life, offers an organized and scientific framework for posing and answering such questions about the natural world. Biologists study questions about how living things work, how they interact with the environment, and how they change over time. Biologists study many different kinds of living things ranging from tiny organisms, such as bacteria, to very large organisms, such as elephants. Each day, biologists investigate subjects that affect you and the way you live. For example, biologists determine which foods are healthy. As shown in Figure 1-1, everyone is affected by this impor- tant topic. Biologists also study how much a person should exer- cise and how one can avoid getting sick. Biologists also study what CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE The world is filled with familiar objects, such as tables, rocks, plants, pets, and automobiles. Which of these objects are living or were once living? What are the criteria for assigning something to the living world or the nonliving world? Biologists have established that living things share seven characteristics of life. These characteristics are organization and the presence of one or more cells, response to a stimulus (plural, stimuli), homeostasis, metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and change through time. Organization and Cells Organization is the high degree of order within an organism’s internal and external parts and in its interactions with the living world. For example, compare an owl to a rock. The rock has a spe- cific shape, but that shape is usually irregular. Furthermore, differ- ent rocks, even rocks of the same type, are likely to have different shapes and sizes. In contrast, the owl is an amazingly organized individual, as shown in Figure 1-2. Owls of the same species have the same body parts arranged in nearly the same way and interact with the environment in the same way. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. ORGANISM (Barn Owl) ORGAN (Owl’s Ear) TISSUE (Nervous Tissue Within the Ear) CELL (Nerve Cell) your air, land, and fAll living organisms, whether made up of one cell or many cells, have some degree of organization. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all life’s processes. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are made up of one cell and are called unicellular (YOON-uh-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Other organisms, such as humans or trees, are made up of multiple cells and are called multicellular (MUHL-ti-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Complex multicellular organisms have the level of orga- nization shown in Figure 1-2. In the highest level, the organism is made up of organ systems, or groups of specialized parts that carry out a certain function in the organism. For example, an owl’s ner- vous system is made up of a brain, sense organs, nerve cells, and other parts that sense and respond to the owl’s surroundings. Organ systems are made up of organs. Organs are structures that carry out specialized jobs within an organ system. An owl’s ear is an organ that allows the owl to hear. All organs are made up of tissues. Tissues are groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function. For example, nervous tissue in the ear allows the ear to detect sound. Tissues are made up of cells. A cell must be covered by a membrane, contain all genetic information necessary for replication, and be able to carry out all cell functions. Within each cell are organelles. Organelles are tiny structures that carry out functions necessary for the cell to stay alive. Organelles contain biological molecules, the chemical compounds that provide physical structure and that bring about movement, energy use, and other cellular functions. All biological molecules are made up of atoms. Atoms are the simplest particle of an ele- ment that retains all the properties of a certain element. Response to Stimuli Another characteristic of life is that an organism can respond to a stimulus—a physical or chemical change in the internal or external environment. For example, an owl dilates its pupils to keep the level of light entering the eye constant. Organisms must be able to respond and react to changes in their environment to stay alive. ORGANELLE (Mitochondrion) BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE (Phospholipid) ATOM (Oxygen) cell from the Latin, cella meaning “small room,” or “hut” Word Roots and Origins www.scilinks.org Topic: Characteristics of Life Keyword: HM60257 mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 7 8 CHAPTER 1 Homeostasis All living things, from single cells to entire organisms, have mecha- nisms that allow them to maintain stable internal conditions. Without these mechanisms, organisms can die. For example, a cell’s water content is closely controlled by the taking in or releas- ing of water. A cell that takes in too much water will rupture and die. A cell that doesn’t get enough water will also shrivel and die. Homeostasis (HOH-mee-OH-STAY-sis) is the maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions even though environmental conditions are constantly changing. Organisms have regulatory systems that maintain internal conditions, such as temperature, water content, and uptake of nutrients by the cell. In fact, multi- cellular organisms usually have more than one way of maintain- ing important aspects of their internal environment. For example, an owl’s temperature is maintained at about 40°C (104°F). To keep a constant temperature, an owl’s cells burn fuel to produce body heat. In addition, an owl’s feathers can fluff up in cold weather. In this way, they trap an insulating layer of air next to the bird’s body to maintain its body temperature. Metabolism Living organisms use energy to power all the life processes, such as repair, movement, and growth. This energy use depends on metabolism (muh-TAB-uh-LIZ-uhm). Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take in and transform energy and materials from the environment. For example, plants, algae, and some bacteria use the sun’s energy to generate sugar molecules during a process called photosynthesis. Some organisms depend on obtaining food energy from other organisms. For instance, an owl’s metabolism allows the owl to extract and modify the chemi- cals trapped in its nightly prey and use them as energy to fuel activities and growth. Growth and Development All living things grow and increase in size. Some nonliving things, such as crystals or icicles, grow by accumulating more of the same material of which they are made. In contrast, the growth of living things results from the division and enlargement of cells. Cell division is the formation of two new cells from an existing cell, as shown in Figure 1-3. In unicellular organisms, the primary change that occurs following cell division is cell enlargement. In multi- cellular life, however, organisms mature through cell division, cell enlargement, and development. Development is the process by which an organism becomes a mature adult. Development involves cell division and cell differen- tiation, or specialization. As a result of development, an adult organism is composed of many cells specialized for different func- tions, such as carrying oxygen in the blood or hearing. In fact, the human body is composed of trillions of specialized cells, all of which originated from a single cell, the fertilized egg. This unicellular organism, Escherichia coli, inhabits the human intestines. E. coli reproduces by means of cell division, during which the original cell splits into two identical offspring cells. FIGURE 1-3 Observing Homeostasis Materials 500 mL beakers (3), wax pen, tap water, thermometer, ice, hot water, goldfish, small dip net, watch or clock with a second hand Procedure 1. Use a wax pen to label three 500 mL beakers as follows: 27°C (80°F), 20°C (68°F), 10°C (50°F). Put 250 mL of tap water in each beaker. Use hot water or ice to adjust the tem- perature of the water in each beaker to match the temperature on the label. 2. Put the goldfish in the beaker of 27°C water. Record the number of times the gills move in 1 minute. 3. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 20°C water. Repeat observations. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 10°C. Repeat observations. Analysis What happens to the rate at which gills move when the temp- erature changes? Why? How do gills help fish maintain homeostasis? Quick Lab mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 8 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 9 Reproduction All organisms produce new organisms like themselves in a process called reproduction. Reproduction, unlike other characteristics, is not essential to the survival of an individual organism. However, because no organism lives forever, reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species. Glass frogs, as shown in Figure 1-4, lay many eggs in their lifetime. However, only a few of the frogs’ off- spring reach adulthood and successfully reproduce. During reproduction, organisms transmit hereditary informa- tion to their offspring. Hereditary information is encoded in a large molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. A short segment of DNA that contains the instructions for a single trait of an organism is called a gene. DNA is like a large library. It contains all the books—genes—that the cell will ever need for making all the struc- tures and chemicals necessary for life. Hereditary information is transferred to offspring during two kinds of reproduction. In sexual reproduction, hereditary information recombines from two organisms of the same species. The resulting offspring are similar but not identical to their parents. For example, a male frog’s sperm can fertilize a female’s egg and form a single fer- tilized egg cell. The fertilized egg then develops into a new frog. In asexual reproduction, hereditary information from different organisms is not combined; thus the original organism and the new organism are genetically the same. A bacterium, for example, reproduces asexually when it splits into two identical cells. Change Through Time Although individual organisms experience many changes during their lifetime, their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of living organisms evolve or change through time. The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. This factor is also impor- tant in explaining the diversity of life-forms we see on Earth today. 1. How does biology affect a person’s daily life? 2. How does biology affect society? 3. Name the characteristics shared by living things. 4. Summarize the hierarchy of organization found in complex multicellular organisms. 5. What are the different functions of homeostasis and metabolism in living organisms? 6. How does the growth among living and nonliv- ing things differ? 7. Why is reproduction an important characteristic of life? CRITICAL THINKING 8. Applying Information Crystals of salt grow and are highly organized. Why don’t biologists con- sider them to be alive? 9. Analyzing Models When a scientist designs a space probe to detect life on a distant planet, what kinds of things should it measure? 10. Making Comparisons Both cells and organisms share the characteristics of life. How are cells and organismsood supply will be like in the near future.EVOLUTION OF LIFE Individual organisms change during their lifetime, but their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of liv- ing organisms do change through time, or evolve. Evolution, or descent with modification, is the process in which the inherited characteristics within populations change over generations, such that genetically distinct populations and new species can develop. Evolution as a theme in biology helps us understand how the various branches of the “tree of life” came into existence and have changed over time. It also explains how organisms alive today are related to those that lived in the past. Finally, it helps us understand the mechanisms that underlie the way organisms look and behave. Natural Selection The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. According to the theory of evolution by natural selection, organisms that have certain favorable traits are better able to survive and reproduce success- fully than organisms that lack these traits. One product of natural selection is the adaptation of organisms to their environment. Adaptations are traits that improve an indi- vidual’s ability to survive and reproduce. For example, rabbits with white fur and short ears in a snowy place, such as the one in Figure 1-7a, may avoid predators and frostbitten ears more often than those with dark fur and long ears. Thus, the next generation of rabbits will have a greater percentage of animals carrying the genes for white fur and short ears. In contrast, the brown, long- eared rabbit, as shown in Figure 1-7b, would survive and reproduce more successfully in a hot desert environment. The survival and reproductive success of organisms with favor- able traits cause a change in populations of organisms over gener- ations. This descent with modification is an important factor in explaining the diversity of organisms we see on Earth today. 1. Name three unifying themes found in biology. 2. How is the unity and diversity in the living world represented? 3. Identify the three domains and the kingdoms found in each domain. 4. How are organisms interdependent? 5. Describe why evolution is important in explain- ing the diversity of life. 6. Distinguish between evolution and natural selection. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Applying Information Assign the various top- pings you put on pizza to the appropriate domains and kingdoms of life. 8. Analyzing Graphics According to the “tree” in Figure 1-5, which of these pairs are more closely related: Archaea:Bacteria or Archaea:Eukarya? 9. Making Hypotheses Fossil evidence shows that bats descended from shrewlike organisms that could not fly. Write a hypothesis for how natural selection might have led to flying bats. SECTION 2 REVIEW (a) This short-eared arctic hare, Lepus arcticus, is hidden from predators and protected from frostbite in a snowy environment. (b) The mottled brown coats of desert rabbits blend in with the dirt and dry grasses, and their long ears help them radiate excess heat and thus avoid overheating. FIGURE 1-7 (a) (b) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 13 TH E STUDY OF BIOLOGY Curiosity leads us to ask questions about life. Science provides a way of answering such questions about the natural world. Science is a systematic method that involves forming and testing hypotheses. More importantly, science relies on evidence, not beliefs, for drawing conclusions. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Science is characterized by an organized approach, called the scientific method, to learn how the natural world works. The methods of science are based on two important principles. The first principle is that events in the natural world have natural causes. For example, the ancient Greeks believed that lightning and thunder occurred because a supernatural god Zeus hurled thunderbolts from the heavens. By contrast, a scientist considers lightning and thunder to result from electric charges in the atmos- phere. When trying to solve a puzzle from nature, all scientists, such as the one in Figure 1-8, accept that there is a natural cause to solve that puzzle. A second principle of science is uniformity. Uniformity is the idea that the fundamental laws of nature operate the same way at all places and at all times. For example, scientists assume that the law of gravity works the same way on Mars as it does on Earth. Steps of the Scientific Method Although there is no single method for doing science, scientific studies involve a series of common steps. 1. The process of science begins with an observation. An observation is the act of perceiving a natural occurrence that causes someone to pose a question. 2. One tries to answer the question by forming hypotheses (singular, hypothesis). A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the way a particular aspect of the natural world functions. 3. A prediction is a statement that forecasts what would happen in a test situation if the hypothesis were true. A prediction is recorded for each hypothesis. 4. An experiment is used to test a hypothesis and its predictions. 5. Once the experiment has been concluded, the data are analyzed and used to draw conclusions. 6. After the data have been analyzed, the data and conclusions are communicated to scientific peers and to the public. This way oth- ers can verify, reject, or modify the researcher’s conclusions. SECTION 3 OBJECTIVES ● Outline the main steps in the scientific method. ● Summarize how observations are used to form hypotheses. ● List the elements of a controlled experiment. ● Describe how scientists use data to draw conclusions. ● Compare a scientific hypothesis and a scientific theory. ● State how communication in science helps prevent dishonesty and bias. VOCABULARY scientific method observation hypothesis prediction experiment control group experimental group independent variable dependent variable theory peer review All researchers, such as the one releasing an owl above, use the scientific method to answer the questions they have about nature. FIGURE 1-8 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 14 CHAPTER 1 OBSERVING AND ASKING QUESTIONS The scientific method generally begins with an unexplained observa- tion about nature. For example, people have noticed for thousands of years that owls can catch prey in near total darkness. As shown in steps and of Figure 1-9, an observation may then raise ques- tions. The owl observation raises the question: How does an owl detect prey in the dark? FORMING A HYPOTHESIS After stating a question, a biologist lists possible answers to a sci- entific question—hypotheses. Good hypotheses answer a question and are testable in the natural world. For example, as shown in step Figure 1-9, there are several possible hypotheses for the question of how owls hunt at night: (a) owls hunt by keen vision in the dark; (b) owls hunt by superb hearing; or (c) owls hunt by detecting the prey’s body heat. Predicting To test a hypothesis, scientists make a prediction that logically fol- lows from the hypothesis. A prediction is what is expected to hap- pen if each hypothesis were true. For example, if hypothesis (a) is true, (owls hunt by keen night vision) then one can predict that the owl will pounce only on the mouse in either a light or a dark room. If hypothesis (b) is true (owls hunt by hearing), then one can pre- dict that in a lighted room, the owl will pounce closer to the mouse’s head. But, in a dark room, the owl should pounce closer to a rustling leaf attached to the mouse. Finally, if hypothesis (c) is true (owls hunt by sensing body heat), then an owl would strike only the prey no matter the room conditions, because owls hunt by detecting the prey’s body heat. 3 1 2 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. A scientific study includes observations, questions, hypotheses, predictions, experiments, data analysis, and conclu- sions. A biologist can use the scientific method to set up an experiment to learn how an owl captures prey at night. FIGURE 1-9 1 OBSERVATION Owls capture prey on dark nights. 2 QUESTION How do owls detect prey on dark nights? 3 HYPOTHESES a) Owls hunt in the dark by vision. b) Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. c) Owls hunt in the dark by sensing body heat. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 15 Notice that these predictions make it difficult to distinguish be- tween the vision and body heat hypotheses. The reason is that both hypotheses predict that the owl could grab the mouse in a dark room. Also, these three hypotheses do not eliminate all other factors that could influence how the owl finds its prey. However, testing predictions can allow one to begin rejecting hypotheses and thus to get closer to determining the answer(s) to a question. DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT Biologists often test hypotheses by setting up an experiment. Step in Figure 1-9 outlines an experiment to test the hypotheses about how an owl hunts at night. First, experimenters set up a room with an owl perch high on one side and a small trap door on the other side for releasing mice. Then, they tied a leaf to each mouse’s tail with a string and released each mouse into the room. Next, each mouse ran silently across the room, but the leaf trailed behind, making a rustling noise. During half of the trials, the lights were on. During the other half, the room was dark. Technicians videotaped all the action in the chamber with an infrared light, which owls cannot see. The researchers then viewed the videos and measured the position of the owl’s strike relative to each mouse’s head. Performing the Experiment Many scientists use a controlled experiment to test their hypotheses. A controlled experiment compares an experimental group and a control group and only has one variable. The control group pro- vides a normal standard against which the biologist can compare results of the experimental group. The experimental group is iden- tical to the control group except for one factor, the independent variable. The experimenter manipulates the independent variable, sometimes called the manipulated variable. 4 4 EXPERIMENT 5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Measure and compare the distance from the owl’s strike to the mouse and to the leaf in light and dark. 6 CONCLUSION Data supported the hearing hypothesis: Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. prey Test predictions of the three hypotheses. Control: In the light Experimental: In the dark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Predicting Results Materials 2 Petri dishes with agar, cellophane tape, wax pen Procedure 1. Open one of the Petri dishes, and streak your finger across the surface of the agar. 2. Replace the lid, and seal it with the tape. Label this Petri dish with your name and a number 1. 3. Seal the second Petri dish with- out removing the lid. Label this Petri dish with your name and the number 2. 4. Write a prediction about what will happen in each dish. Store your dishes as your teacher directs. Record your observations. Follow your teacher’s directions for disposal of your dishes. Analysis Was your prediction accurate? What evidence can you cite to support your prediction? If you did not obtain the results you predicted, would you change your testing method or your prediction? Explain. Evaluate the importance of obtaining a result that does not support your prediction. Quick Lab mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 15 16 CHAPTER 1 The independent variable in the owl experiment is the presence or absence of light. In the owl experiment, the control group hunts in the light, and the experimental group hunts in the dark. In addi- tion to varying the independent variable, a scientist observes or measures another factor called the dependent variable, or respond- ing variable, because it is affected by the independent variable. In the owl experiment, the dependent variable is distance from the owl’s strike to the mouse’s head. Testing the Experiment Some controlled experiments are conducted “blind.” In other words, the biologist who scores the results is unaware of whether a given subject is part of the experimental or control group. This factor helps eliminate experimenter bias. Experiments should also be repeated, because living systems are variable. Moreover, scien- tists must collect enough data to find meaningful results. COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA Most experiments measure a variable—the dependent variable. This measurement provides quantitative data, data measured in numbers. For example, in the experiment above, scientists mea- sured the distance of an owl’s strike from the prey’s head in cen- timeters, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. An event’s duration in milliseconds is also an example of quantitative data. Biologists usually score the results of an experiment by using one of their senses. They might see or hear the results of an experiment. Scientists also extend their senses with a micro- scope for tiny objects or a microphone for soft sounds. In the owl experiment, biologists extended their vision with infrared cameras. Analyzing and Comparing Data After collecting data from a field study or an experiment and then organizing it, biologists then analyze the data. In analyzing data, the goal is to determine whether the data are reliable, and whether they support or fail to support the predictions of the hypothesis. To do so, scientists may use statistics to help determine relation- ships between the variables involved. They can then compare their data with other data that were obtained in other similar studies. It is also important at this time to determine possible sources of error in the experiment just per- formed. Scientists usually display their data in tables or graphs when analyzing it. For the owl study, biologists could have made a bar graph such as the one in Figure 1-10, which shows the average distance from the owl’s strike relative to the mouse’s head or the leaf in the light and in the dark. 5 5 0 10 15 20 25 In the light In the dark Average distance from strike (cm) Distance Between Owl Strike and a Mouse or From a Leaf Attached to Mouse 30 Mouse Leaf Mouse Leaf The data below are hypothetical results that might occur from the described owl experiment.The independent variable is the darkness of the room, and the dependent variable is how far the owl struck from the mouse’s head.The data show that the owl strikes more accurately at the mouse in the light but strikes more accurately at the leaf in the dark. FIGURE 1-10 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 17 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Biologists analyze their tables, graphs, and charts to draw conclu- sions about whether or not a hypothesis is supported, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. The hypothetical owl data show that in the light, owls struck with greater accuracy at the mouse than at the leaf, but in the dark, owls struck with greater accuracy at the leaf than the mouse. Thus, the findings support the hearing hypothe- sis, but not the vision hypothesis. An experiment can only disprove, not prove, a hypothesis. For example, one cannot conclude from the results that the hearing hypothesis is proven to be true. Perhaps the owl uses an unknown smell to strike at the mouse. One can only reject the vision hypothe- sis because it did not predict the results of the experiment correctly. Acceptance of a hypothesis is always tentative in science. The scientific community revises its understanding of phenomena, based on new data. Having ruled out one hypothesis, a biologist will devise more tests to try to rule out any remaining hypotheses. Making Inferences Scientists often draw inferences from data gathered during a field study or experiment. An inference (IN-fuhr-uhns) is a conclusion made on the basis of facts and previous knowledge rather than on direct observations. Unlike a hypothesis, an inference is not directly testable. In the owl study, it is inferred that the owl detects prey from a distance rather than by direct touch. Applying Results and Building Models As shown in Figure 1-11, scientists often apply their findings to solve practical problems. They also build models to represent or describe things. For example in 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick used cardboard balls and wire bars to build physical models of atoms in an attempt to understand the structure of DNA. Mathematical models are sets of equations that describe how dif- ferent measurable items interact in a system. The experimenter can adjust variables to better model the real-world data. CONSTRUCTING A THEORY When a set of related hypotheses is confirmed to be true many times, and it can explain a great amount of data, scientists often reclassify it as a theory. Some examples include the quantum the- ory, the cell theory, or the theory of evolution. People commonly use the word “theory” in a different way than scientists use the word. People may say “It’s just a theory” suggesting that an idea is untested, but scientists view a theory as a highly tested, generally accepted principle that explains a vast number of observations and experimental data. 6 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Biologists often apply their knowledge of the natural world to practical problems. Studies on the owl’s keen ability to locate sounds in space despite background noise are helping biotechnologists and bioengineers develop better solutions for people with impaired hearing, such as the people shown in this picture. FIGURE 1-11 18 CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATING IDEAS An essential aspect of scientific research is scientists working together. Scientists often work together in research teams or sim- ply share research results with other scientists. This is done by publishing findings in scientific journals or presenting them at sci- entific meetings, as shown in Figure 1-12. Sharing information allows others working independently to verify findings or to con- tinue work on established results. For example, Roger Payne pub- lished the results of his owl experiments in a journal in 1971. Then, other biologists could repeat it for verification or use it to study the mechanisms introduced by the paper. With the growing impor- tance of science in solving societal issues, it is becoming increas- ingly vital for scientists to be able to communicate with the public at large. Publishing a Paper Scientists submit research papers to scientific journals for publica- tion. A typical research paper has four sections. First, the Introduction poses the problem and hypotheses to be investigated. Next, the Materials and Methods describe how researchers proceeded with the experiment. Third, the Results state the findings the experiment presented, and finally, the Discussion gives the significance of the experiment and future directions the scientists will take. Job Description Forensic biolo- gists are scientists who study biological materials to investigate potential crimes and other legal issues against humans and animals. Forensic scientists have knowledge in areas of biology, such as DNA and blood pattern analysis, and work in private sector and public laboratories. Focus On a Forensic Biologist As a law enforcement forensic specialist for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Beverly Villarreal assists the game warden in investigations of fish and wildlife violations, such as illegal hunting and fishing. Villarreal analyzes blood and tissue samples to identify species of animals such as fish, birds, and reptiles. Her work helps game wardens as they enforce state laws regarding hunting and fishing. Most people think of forensic scientists as the glamorous crime investigators on TV, but according to Villarreal real forensic scientists “spend a great deal of time at a lab bench running analysis after analysis.” Many of the methods used in animal forensics, such as DNA sequenc- ing, are also used in human forensics. Education and Skills • High school—three years of science courses and four years of math courses. • College—bachelor of science in biol- ogy, including course work in zoology and genetics, plus experience in per- forming DNA analyses. • Skills—patience, attention to detail, and ability to use fine tools. Careers in BIOLOGY Forensic Biologist For more about careers, visit go.hrw.com and type in the keyword HM6 Careers. www.scilinks.org Topic: Scientific Investigations Keyword: HM61358 mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 18 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 19 1. What two principles make the scientific method a unique process? 2. Define the roles of observations and hypotheses in science. 3. Summarize the parts of a controlled experiment. 4. Summarize how we make conclusions about the results of an experiment. 5. Why is the phrase, “it’s just a theory” misleading? 6. Give another example of a conflict of interest. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Making Hypotheses On a nocturnal owl’s skull, one ear points up, and the other ear points down. Suggest a hypothesis for this observation. 8. Designing Experiments Design an experiment to establish if owls hunt by keen sight or hunt by heat seeking. 9. Calculating Information What was the average distance between the owl’s strike and the mouse if the recorded differences in this experiment were 25, 22, 19, 19, and 15? SECTION 3 REVIEW After scientists submit their papers to a scientific journal, the editors of that journal will send the paper out for peer review. In a peer review, scientists who are experts in the field anonymously read and critique that research paper. They determine if a paper pro- vides enough information so that the experiment can be duplicated and if the author used good experimental controls and reached an accurate conclusion. They also check if the paper is written clearly enough for broad understanding. Careful analysis of each other’s research by fellow scientists is essential to making scientific progress and preventing scientific dishonesty. HONESTY AND BIAS The scientific community depends on both honesty and good sci- ence. While designing new studies, experimenters must be very careful to prevent previous ideas and biases from tainting both the experimental process and the conclusions. Scientists have to keep in mind that they are always trying to disprove their favorite ideas. Scientists repeat experiments to verify previous findings. This allows for science to have a method for self-correction and it also keeps researchers honest and credible to their peers in the field. Conflict of Interest For most scientists, maintaining a good reputation for collecting and presenting valid data is more important than temporary prestige or income. So, scientists try to avoid any potential conflicts of interest. For example, a scientist who owns a biotechnology company and manufactures a drug would not be the best researcher to critically test that drug’s safety and effectiveness. To avoid this potential con- flict of interest, the scientist allows an unaffected party, such as a research group, to test the drug’s effectiveness. The threat of a potential scandal based on misleading data or conclusions is a pow- erful force in science that helps keep scientists honest and fair. Scientists present their experiments in various forms. The scientists above are presenting their work in the form of a poster at a scientific meeting. FIGURE 1-12 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. The Internet can provide a wealth of scientific information for a report, but the information may not always be credible or accurate. You can use the methods above to check the accuracy and credibility of your sources. SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY SCIENCE ON THE INTERNET: A New Information Age I n the past, students research- ing a science topic would typ- ically begin their research by visiting a library to use printed reference materials, such as encyclopedias. Today, most stu- dents research topics by using a computer and searching for information on the Internet. The Internet can provide students with a wealth of infor- mation. But which Web sites have accurate information, and which Web sites do not? Checking Web Addresses Students should use the Web address, or URL, to establish the Web site’s credibility. Usually, the domain name can suggest who has published the Web site. Web sites can be pub- lished by governmental agen- cies (ends in “dot gov” or .gov), by educational institutions (ends in “dot edu” or .edu), by organizations (ends in “dot org” or .org), or by commercial businesses (ends in “dot com” or .com). Government Web sites are usually reliable. Examples of credible governmental Web sites are the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). University and medical school sites are also reliable sources of information. Many organiza- tions that research and teach the public about specific diseases and conditions can also provide reliable information. Examples of such organizations are the American Cancer Society and the American Heart Association. Evaluating Web Sites The credibility of the author of the Web site should also be checked. Make sure the author is not trying to sell anything and is established in his or her field. For example, a health Web site’s author should be a med- ical professional. It is also important to check the date that the information was posted on the Web to ensure that the information is current. Also, the Web site should provide ref- erences from valid sources, such as scientific journals or govern- ment publications. Finally, the student should always double-check informa- tion between several reliable Web sites. If two or three reliable sites provide the same informa- tion, the student can feel confi- dent in using that information. Web Sites for Students The Internet Connect boxes in this textbook have all been reviewed by professionals at the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). Students can trust that these sites are reliable sources for science- or health-related topics. REVIEW 1. Which types of Web addresses are the most reliable? 2. List four important features to evaluate when using a Web site for research. 3. Supporting Reasoned Opinions Why do you think a Web site that is advertising a product may not offer accurate information? REVIEW 20 www.scilinks.org Topic: Using the Internet Keyword: HM61589 mb06se_biosts.qxd 5/18/07 10:42 AM Page 20 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES With proper equipment and good methods, biologists can see, manipulate, and understand the natural world in new ways. Microscopes are one of many useful tools used to unlock nature’s biological secrets. MICROSCOPES AS TOOLS Tools are objects used to improve the performance of a task. Microscopes are tools that extend human vision by making enlarged images of objects. Biologists use microscopes to study organisms, cells, cell parts, and molecules. Microscopes reveal details that otherwise might be difficult or impossible to see. Light Microscopes To see small organisms and cells, biologists typically use a light microscope, such as the one shown in Figure 1-13. A compound light microscope is a microscope that shines light through a spec- imen and has two lenses to magnify an image. To use this micro- scope, one first mounts the specimen to be viewed on a glass slide. The specimen must be thin enough for light to pass through it. For tiny pond organisms, such as the single-celled paramecium, light passing through the organism is not a problem. For thick objects, such as plant stems, biologists must cut thin slices for viewing. There are four major parts of a compound light microscope. For further description of the parts of a micro- scope, see the Appendix. 1. Eyepiece The eyepiece (ocular (AHK-yoo-luhr) lens) magnifies the image, usually 10 times. 2. Objective Lens Light passes through the specimen and then through the objective lens, which is located directly above the specimen. The objective lens enlarges the image of the specimen. Scientists sometimes use stains to make the image easier to see. 3. Stage The stage is a platform that supports a slide holding the specimen. The slide is placed over the opening in the stage of the microscope. 4. Light Source The light source is a light bulb that provides light for viewing the image. It can be either light reflected with a mirror or an incandescent light from a small lamp. SECTION 4 OBJECTIVES ● List the function of each of the major parts of a compound light microscope. ● Compare two kinds of electron microscopes. ● Describe the importance of having the SI system of measurement. ● State some examples of good laboratory practice. VOCABULARY compound light microscope eyepiece (ocular lens) objective lens stage light source magnification nosepiece resolution scanning electron microscope transmission electron microscope metric system base unit Compound light microscopes open the human eye to an interesting world including tiny pond organisms, healthy and diseased cells, and the functioning of cell parts. FIGURE 1-13 Objective lens Eyepiece (ocular lens) Stage Light THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 21 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 22 CHAPTER 1 Magnification and Resolution Microscopes vary in powers of magnification and resolution. Magnification is the increase of an object’s apparent size. Revolving the nosepiece, the structure that holds the set of objective lens, rotates these lenses into place above the specimen. In a typical com- pound light microscope, the most powerful objective lens produces an image up to 100 times (100) the specimen’s actual size. The degree of enlargement is called the power of magnification of the lens. The standard ocular lens magnifies a specimen 10 times (10). To compute the power of magnification of a microscope, the power of magnification of the strongest objective lens (in this case, 100) is multiplied by the power of magnification of the ocular lens (10). The result is a total power of magnification of 1000. Resolution (REZ-uh-LOO-shuhn) is the power to show details clearly in an image. The physical properties of light limit the ability of light microscopes to resolve images, as shown in Figure 1-14a. At pow- ers of magnification beyond about 2,000, the image of the speci- men becomes fuzzy. For this reason, scientists use other microscopes to view very small cellsWidening the franchise in 19th century BritainExploring and emulating character description in Nemirovsky's 'Suite Française'Il était une fois un garçon nommé Maxime. Maxime avait 15 ans et il vivait dans une petite ville française. Il aimait passer son temps à jouer aux jeux vidéo et à regarder des films d'action. Un jour, Maxime découvrit un mystérieux coffret dans le grenier de sa maison. Il l'ouvrit avec curiosité et à l'intérieur se trouvait une vieille carte au trésor. Maxime était excité et décida de partir à l'aventure pour trouver ce trésor caché. Il rassembla ses amis, Camille et Lucas, et ensemble, ils suivirent les indices sur la carte. Ils traversèrent des forêts sombres, escaladèrent des montagnes escarpées et naviguèrent sur un lac profond. La quête était difficile, mais ils ne se découragèrent pas. Finalement, ils arrivèrent à l'endroit indiqué sur la carte. Ils creusèrent profondément et découvrirent un coffre rempli de pièces d'or et de bijoux étincelants. Ils étaient émerveillés par leur découverte. Maxime partagea le trésor avec ses amis. Ils décidèrent d'utiliser l'argent pour réaliser leurs rêves. Maxime acheta une nouvelle console de jeux, Camille réalisa un voyage qu'elle avait toujours voulu faire, et Lucas décida d'investir dans une caméra pour poursuivre sa passion pour la photographie. C'était une aventure incroyable pour ces trois amis. Ils réalisèrent qu'il était important de travailler en équipe, de rester courageux et de poursuivre ses rêves. Ils gardèrent précieusement les souvenirs de cette aventure pour toujours. Can you make 5 easy multiple option reading and comprehension questions with answers they can find literally in the text?Il produttore che decide di usare degli intermediari per organizzare la distribuzione dei suoi prodotti, deve decidere quanti usarne per ciascun livello, Esistono 3 possibili strategie di copertura: La distribuzione intensiva ➠ l'impresa cerca il maggior numero possibile di punti vendita per il proprio prodotto e tende a moltiplicare i centri di stoccaggio per assicurare la massima copertura dell'area di vendita e la massima esposizione per la marca; si adatta ai prodotti di acquisto corrente e ai servizi di facile esecuzione. es. i Pocket Coffee che sono venduti ovunque sia possibile. Vantaggi: massimizza la disponibilità del prodotto e consente di generare una quota di mercato consistente grazie all'elevata esposizione della marca ai potenziali clienti. Rischi: il volume d'affari può differire da un distributore all'altro, mentre il costo di contatto è identico per ogni intermediario, l'aumento del costo di distribuzione può compromettere la redditività. Quando il prodotto è distribuito in larga misura in punti vendita molteplici e differenziati, l'impresa rischia di: perdere il controllo della sua strategia di marketing, non riuscire a prevenire la concorrenza sleale in fatto di prezzi, una riduzione della qualità del servizio e la mancanza di collaborazione. Infine questa distribuzione è spesso incompatibile con la salvaguardia di un'immagine di marca coerente e di un posizionamento preciso nel mercato. La distribuzione selettiva ➠ Il produttore ricorre, in una determinata area geografica, a un numero di intermediari inferiore rispetto al numero di intermediari disponibili; è indicata per i prodotti il cui acquisto è ponderato e non frequente (shopping good), e per I quali il cliente procede a un confronto tra i vari prezzi e tra le varie caratteristiche delle offerte presenti sul mercato.es. Burberry distribuisce i suoi prodotti di abbigliamento in negozi specializzati, accuratamente selezionati. Questa distribuzione può scaturire dal rifiuto di una parte di dettaglianti di accettare il prodotto nel proprio assortimento, perché si abbia distribuzione selettiva voluta dal produttore, deve essere quest'ultimo a selezionare i propri intermediari; esistono diversi possibili criteri di scelta: La dimensione del distributore, misurata dal suo volume d'affari, costituisce il criterio più usato. La qualità del servizio offerto; alcuni distributori sono in grado di svolgere alcune funzioni in modo più efficace di altri. La competenza tecnica e l'attrezzatura aggiornata del distributore sono criteri importanti soprattutto nel caso dei prodotti complessi, per i quali la qualità dell'assistenza post vendita è fondamentale. Optando per questa distribuzione si accetta di limitare la disponibilità della propria offerta, onde ridurre i costi di distribuzione e ottenere una migliore collaborazione da parte degli intermediari, questa collaborazione ha diverse forme: la partecipazione alle spese di pubblicità e di promozione; l'inserimento di prodotti nuovi o non richiesti, il mantenimento di un livello minimo di scorte ecc.. Rischi: non garantire una copertura sufficiente del mercato, il produttore deve assicurarsi che il cliente finale sia in grado di identificare facilmente il distributore, altrimenti la ridotta disponibilità conduce a perdite di opportunità di vendita; l'impresa è praticamente obbligata a scegliere un canale di tipo indiretto breve. La distribuzione esclusiva e I sisterni di franchising ➠ in una zona predeterminata, un solo distributore ottiene il diritto esclusivo di vendere la marca e s'impegna a non vendere marche concorrenti della stessa categoria di prodotti.es. Louis Vuitton distribuisce i suoi prodotti in negozi esclusivi: a ogni punto vendita viene assegnata una zona in cui nessun altro è autorizzato a rappresentare la marca. Vantaggi: differenzia il proprio prodotto con una politica di alta qualità, di prestigio, la collaborazione con distributori esclusivi facilita la realizzazione dei programmi di servizio al cliente del produttore. Vantaggi e inconvenienti sono gli stessi della distribuzione selettiva, ma accentuati. Una forma particolare è il franchising ➠forma di marketing verticale contrattuale integrato che fa riferimento a un sistema completo di distribuzione dei beni e dei servizi. Esso implica una relazione contrattuale continua in cui l'impresa affiliante (franchisor) dà ai suoi affiliati (franchisee) il privilegio di vendere il proprio prodotto o servizio che è molto conosciuto. Il franchisee accetta di pagare una quota iniziale e/o royalties calcolate sulle vendite e di ricevere assistenza e servizi dal franchisor;Il franchisee acquista il diritto di utilizzare una formula di successo e beneficia del supporto e delle conoscenze del franchisor. Caratteristiche di un franchising efficace: si commercializza un prodotto o servizio di alta qualità,la domanda del prodotto o servizio è universale,viene offerto servizio ed assistenza iniziale e continuativi, vengono specificati il canone iniziale e le royalty, coinvolge il franchisee nella gestione e sviluppo del sistema, specifica procedure di rinnovo, annullamento e proroga del contratto. La classificazione dei beni di consumo La scelta della strategia migliore per un dato prodotto dipende dalle caratteristiche del prodotto stesso e dall'obiettivo perseguito dall'impresa nell'ambiente competitivo in cui opera, si stabilisce una distinzione fra 4 sottogruppi: 1) I prodotti d'acquisto corrente (convenience good) sono i beni che il consumatore acquista con il minimo sforzo possibile, di frequente e in piccole quantità, adottando un comportamento d'acquisto abitudinario. Questa categoria può essere suddivisa in: prodotti di prima necessità: sono acquistati regolarmente e includono la maggior parte dei prodotti alimentari, l'acquisto è facilitato dalla fedeltà alla marca e dalla pubblicità ripetitiva. prodotti d'impulso: vengono acquistati senza alcuna premeditazione (patatine);devono essere disponibili in più negozi; la confezione e gli espositori sono importanti per la loro vendita. prodotti d'urgenza: vengono acquistati per soddisfare un bisogno inaspettato e urgente, vanno acquistati nel momento del bisogno quindi devono essere disponibili in diversi tipi di punti vendita (cerotti, disinfettanti ecc.); per questi prodotti, l'impresa non ha scelta: è necessaria la massima copertura del mercato perché, se il cliente non trova il prodotto o la marca desiderata nel momento e nel luogo in cui vuole acquistarla, sceglierà un'altra marca. 2) I prodotti di acquisto ragionato (shopping good) sono prodotti per i qualí si percepisce un livello elevato di rischio, per cui i consumatori investono tempo e impegno per confrontare le caratteristiche di prodotti alternativi, in base a criteri come la qualità, il prezzo, lo stile ecc. es. mobili, abiti... prodotti a prezzo elevato e a bassa frequenza d'acquisto. In questi casi, i clienti potenziali si recano in vari punti vendita prima di decidere l'acquisto e il personale di vendita esercita un'influenza notevole sulla decisione finale. Per questi prodotti è indicata la distribuzione selettiva, in quanto serve la collaborazione del dettagliante e l'ubicazione adeguata del punto vendita. 3) I prodotti esclusivi (specialty good) sono prodotti con caratteristiche uniche; all'acquisto di tali beni il consumatore è pronto a dedicare molti sforzi, si tratta di marche di prodotti di lusso es. auto, alta moda ecc. Per questi prodotti, i clienti non procedono a confronti tra le marche: cercano il punto vendita dove è disponibile il prodotto o la marca desiderata. Il fattore determinante è la fedeltà al prodotto o alla marca, per il produttore di un bene specifico, la distribuzione esclusiva rappresenta la migliore soluzione. 4) I prodotti non ricercati sono quelli che i clienti non conoscono, o quelli che sono noti ma non c'è interesse spontaneo, rientrano, per esempio, apparecchiature per il controllo della temperatura o assicurazioni sulla vita. Questi prodotti non ricercati richiedono sforzi di vendita notevoli e la collaborazione dell'intermediario è indispensabile. 16.6 Le politiche di comunicazione nella rete distributiva Per conseguire gli obiettivi di marketing dell'impresa, è necessaria la collaborazione dei distributori. Per ottenere tale impegno da parte degli intermediari, l'impresa può scegliere 2 politichecomunicative: Le politiche push Consiste nel concentrare gli sforzi di comunicazione e di promozione sugli intermediari, in modo da stimolarli a collaborare con l'azienda, inserire il prodotto nei loro assortimenti, immagazzinarlo in quantità consistenti e garantirgli lo spazio di vendita adeguato. L'obiettivo è quello di sollecitare la collaborazione volontaria del distributore che, a seconda degli incentivi e delle condizioni di vendita che gli vengono proposti (margini elevati, sconti sulle quantità, pubblicità nel punto vendita, budget promozionali, distribuzioni gratuite), tenderà a privilegiare il nostro prodotto, quindi è indispensabile un programma di incentivi. Il rischio di questa strategia è che potrebbe rendere l'impresa dipendente dall'intermediario, che ne controlla l'accesso al mercato. Le politiche pull Consiste nel tagliare fuori gli intermediari e cercare di costruire la domanda dell'impresa rivolgendosi direttamente ai potenziali consumatori nel segmento target. L'obiettivo comunicativo è quello di creare una forte domanda da parte del consumatore finale e di sviluppare la fedeltà alla marca in modo che il distributore sia costretto a inserirla nel proprio assortimento, per soddisfare le richieste del consumatore. Sono necessarie spese sulla comunicazione in pubblicità sui media, promozioni ai consumatori e altri mezzi di mkt diretto, se si ha successo, il produttore avrà il potere d'influenzare i partecipanti al canale distributivo e di indurli a prendere in carico la marca.. Procter & Gamble adotta una politica pull per lanciare i nuovi prodotti. Però questa politica richiede ingenti risorse finanziarie per coprire i costi delle campagne pubblicitarie, si tratta di costi fissi mentre adottando una politica push, i costi sono proporzionali ai volumi di vendita e diventano più sostenibili, in particolare per le piccole imprese. Una politica pull va considerata un investimento a lungo termine: l'obiettivo dell'impresa è quello di creare un capitale di reputazione, il cosiddetto "brand equity". In pratica le due politiche di comunicazione sono utilizzate insieme. 16.7 L'analisi dei costi di distribuzione I costi di distribuzione sono misurati dalla differenza tra il prezzo unitario di vendita pagato dal consumatore finale e il prezzo pagato al produttore dal primo acquirente. Il margine di distribuzione s'identifica dunque con il concetto di valore aggiunto del canale distributivo. Laddove più intermediari intervengono nel processo distributivo, il margine di distribuzione è costituito dalla somma dei margini del diversi Intermediari. I margini di distribuzione Si esprime in termini percentuali, si calcola sia in rapporto al costo d'acquisto (C), sia in rapporto al prezzo di vendita (P). Si parla di margine di distribuzione (D) come di mark-up (o "ricarico") e di"sconto". Abbiamo diverse formule di calcolo: Costi di distribuzione (CD) ➨ CD = Pcf - Ppa Pcf = prezzo pagato dal consumatore finale Ppa = prezzo pagato al produttore dal primo acquirente Margine di distribuzione (MD) = volume d’affari del canale (VA) MD = ∑ md n md = Pv - Pa n = margini dei diversi intermediari In un sistema di distribuzione indiretto, il margine di distribuzione è uguale alla somma dei margini dei distributori IL MARGINE DEL DISTRIBUTORE (D) = prezzo di vendita - costo d'acquisto = D = P - C IL MARGINE DI DISTRIBUZIONE IN PERCENTUALE sul prezzo di vendita (sconto): D* = P-C / P sul costo di acquisto (mark-up): D° = P-C / C REGOLE DI EQUIVALENZA D*= D° /1 + D° D° = D* /1 - D* Calcolo del prezzo di vendita al cliente Costo di acquisto = 90€; Sconto = 25% Prezzo di vendita al dettaglio = 90€/ (1 - 0,25) = 90€/0,75 = 120€ I margini di distribuzione sono espressi in relazione al prezzo di vendita, ma la prassi può variare fra un settore e l'altro e fra un'impresa e l'altra, inoltre dipende dalla posizione occupata dall'intermediario nella rete e remunera la funzione o le funzioni esercitate. In alcuni casi, l'intermediario beneficia di più margini. Confronto tra prezzo di listino, di fattura e finale I margini di distribuzione costituiscono solo una parte del margine totale, bisogna distinguere tra; ➤prezzo di listino è il prezzo ufficiale, pubblicato nel tariffario o nel listino dell'azienda. ➤prezzo di fattura è il prezzo di listino al netto delle deduzioni "in fattura" che andrebbero conteggiate in aggiunta allo sconto standard per il distributore, per esempio, di sconti speciali al distributore, sconti all'utente finale e promozioni in fattura. ➤prezzo finale è il prezzo di fattura senza le deduzioni "aggiunte fuori fattura", come lo sconto per i pagamenti in contanti, i costi del conto clienti, le indennità, i rimborsi, i programmi promozionali fuori fattura e le spese di spedizione, inoltre confezioni speciali o supporto tecnico.. sottraendo dal prezzo finale il costo di questi servizi si ottiene il margine finale, ossia la misura della redditività del prodotto. Confronto fra costi di distribuzione Il margine di distribuzione remunera le funzioni e i compiti della distribuzione assunti dagli intermediari. Nel canale indiretto lungo, la maggior parte dei compiti fisici di distribuzione (stoccaggio e trasporto) sono svolti dai grossisti e i costi sono proporzionali al volume d'affari del fabbricante e coperti dal margine del grossista e del distributore. Il produttore deve mantenere un servizio commerciale minimo, con spese fisse a suo carico ridotte però l'impresa esercita un controllo scarso sull'organizzazione di vendita. Nel canale indiretto breve, la quota di spese fisse diventa preponderante rispetto al costo totale di distribuzione; il fabbricante deve sostenere le spese della distribuzione fisica, organizzare una rete di magazzini e un'amministrazione delle vendite, sugli oneri finanziari prodotti dalla gestione delle scorte e del conto vendita della clientela, come pure la funzione di vendita. L'adozione di questo canale implica per il fabbricante, un rischio finanziario maggiore, però l'impresa è in grado di esercitare un miglior controllo sulla propria organizzazione commerciale, essendo in contatto diretto con la domanda finale. L'indice di redditività di ciascuno di essi si calcolerà nel modo seguente: R = volume d'affari - costi di distribuzione /costi di distribuzione dove R rappresenta una valutazione dell'indice di redditività previsto, tenendo conto dell'insieme dei costi che ogni canale comporta.Ripasso in francese: Forma interrogativa, aggettivi dimostrativi, verbi prendre, decendre, voir, pouvoir, vouloir, preposizioni Y et En, aggettivi, indefiniti, pronomi COD, forma interrogativa, oui/si, passé composé I mestieri in francese