It deals with the interconversion of energy between two forms.

States that energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

Is the part of the universe being studied or which attention is focused

Include everything else in the universe.

A form of energy transfer between two objects as a result of their difference in temperature.

in thermodynamics, depends on the direction of energy transfer.

When work is done by the system, it's

When work is done on the system (like compression), it's

In every chemical or physical reaction, energy is either absorbed or released.

In this reaction, energy is released into the surroundings as HEAT.

In this reaction, energy is absorbed into the surroundings.

The change in the internal energy △U) of a system is equal to the heat (Q) added to thesystem minus the work (W) done by the system.

Formula: △U = Q - W

Note: This law is a powerful restatement of the conservation of energy, tailored forthermodynamic systems.

A balanced chemical equation that includes the physical states of all reactants and products and the energy change (△H), usually expressed in kJ/mol.

If a reaction is carried out in a series of steps, △H for the overall reaction equals the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.

If the reaction is reversed, the sign of △H is also reversed.

If a chemical reaction is multiplied or divided by a number, the △H is also multiplied or divided by the same number.

The change in enthalpy associated with the formation of 1 mole of a compound from its constituent elements in their standard states (1 atm and 25°C).

Formation for an element in its standard state is ZERO.

Study of reaction rates.

Study of reaction rates.

Nature and Concentration

Temperature

Surface area

The rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the number of collisions between the reactant molecules.

1. Proper Orientation2. Sufficient Energy (Activation Energy)

A process where the rate of reaction is increased by a catalyst.

A substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing a permanent chemical change itself.

Reactants and catalysts are dispersed in a single phase,usually a liquid.

The reactant and the catalyst are in different phases.

Enzymes are biological catalysts. Enzyme catalysis is usually homogenous because the substrate and enzyme are present in aqueous solution.

The rate of reaction does not depend on the concentration of the reactant. Even if you add more reactants, the rate stays the same.

The rate of reaction depends on the concentration of one reactant. If you double the concentration, the rate doubles

The rate depends on the square of the concentration of one reactant OR on the product of two reactants. If you double the concentration, the rate becomes four times faster.

Measure of randomness or disorder.

Universe's entropy increases in spontaneous processes.

increases the kinetic energy of the particles, leading to more random movement and therefore increased entropy.

Entropy generally increases as a substance changes from solid to liquid togas: Solid < Liquid < Gas (More particles in the gaseous state).

Increase in the number of particles (as in a decomposition reaction A → B + C leads to increased entropy.○ A more complex molecule (more atoms) generally has hi

Mixing different substances generally leads to increased entropy because the particles become more dispersed and disordered.

A process is spontaneous if it occurs without continuous external intervention.

△G < 0: The process is

△G > 0: The process is

△G = 0: The system is at