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Gulf of Tonkin - United States History
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Gulf of Tonkin incidenthysical features of Southeast Asia The physiography of Southeast Asia has been formed to a large extent by the convergence of three of the Earthās major crustal units: the Eurasian, Indian-Australian, and Pacific plates. The land has been subjected to a considerable amount of faulting, folding, uplifting, and volcanic activity over geologic time, and much of the region is mountainous. There are marked structural differences between the mainland and insular portions of the region. Mainland Southeast Asia The mainland is characterized by a series of generally northāsouth-trending mountain ranges separated by a number of major river valleys and their associated deltas. In many ways these ranges resemble ribs in a fan, where the interstices are deep trenches carved by the rivers. Although the mainland as a whole is similar in a structural sense, its various geologic components and the time periods of their orogenic (mountain-building) episodes differ. Much of the region has been affected by the gradual, continuing collision of the Indian subcontinent with the Eurasian Plate over roughly the past 50 million years, an event thatāwith diminishing intensity from west to eastāhas been responsible for deforming the land. Nonetheless, mainland Southeast Asia is relatively stable geologically, with no active or recently active volcanoes and, except in the northwest and north, little seismic activity. The ranges fan out southward from the southeastern corner of the Plateau of Tibet, where they are tightly spaced. A major rib of this system extends through the entire western margin of Myanmar (Burma); describing an elongated letter S, it consists of (from north to south) the PÄtkai Range, NÄga Hills, Chin Hills, and Arakan Mountains. Farther to the south the same rib emerges from beneath the sea to become the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Another major system extends along a straight north-south axis from eastern Myanmar east of the Salween River through northwestern Thailand to south of the Isthmus of Kra on the Malay Peninsula. It consists of a series of elongated blocks rather than one continuous ridge. The core of these blocks is granite, which has intruded into previously folded and faulted limestone and sandstone. The altitudes of the ranges diminish from above 8,000 feet (2,440 meters) on the Chinese border in the north to below 4,000 feet on the Isthmus of Kra, and the ranges are spread farther apart toward the south. The easternmost major mountain feature on the mainland is the Annamese Cordillera (ChaĆ®ne Annamitique) in Laos and Vietnam. In the portion between Laos and Vietnam, the chain forms a nearly straight spine of ranges from northwest to southeast, with a steep face rising from the South China Sea to the east and a more gradual slope to the west. The mountains thin out considerably south of Laos and become asymmetrical in form. The upland zone is characterized by a number of plateau remnants. The rather neat fanlike pattern of the mountain ranges is interrupted occasionally by several old blocks of strata that have been folded, faulted, and deeply dissected. These ancient massifs now form either low platforms or high plateaus. The westernmost of these, the Shan Plateau of eastern Myanmar, measures some 250 miles (400 km) from north to south and 75 miles from east to west and has an average elevation of about 3,000 feet. The largest of these features is the Korat Plateau in eastern Thailand and west-central Laos. This area actually is more of a low platform, which on average is only a few hundred feet above the floodplains of the surrounding rivers. It consists of a string of hills that direct surface drainage eastward to the Mekong River. The hills range in elevation from 500 to 2,000 feet, with the highest altitudes occurring near the southwestern rim. The broad river valleys between the uplands and the even wider deltas at the southernmost points contain most of the mainlandās lowland areas. These regions generally are covered with alluvial sediments that support much of the mainlandās cultivation and, in turn, most of its population centers. The most extensive coastal lowland is the lower Mekong basin, which encompasses most of Cambodia and southern Vietnam. The Cambodian portion is a broad, bowl-shaped area lying just above sea level, with numerous hill outcrops jutting above the landscape; at its center is a large freshwater lake, the Tonle Sap. To the south the riverās vast, flat delta occupies the entire southern tip of Vietnam. Outside the river deltas, the coastal lowlands are little more than narrow strips between the mountains and the sea, except around the southern half of the Malay Peninsula. The Malay Peninsula stretches south for some 900 miles from the head of the Gulf of Thailand (Siam) to Singapore and thus extends the mainland into insular Southeast Asia. The narrowest point, the Isthmus of Kra (about 40 miles wide), also roughly divides the peninsula into two parts: the long linear mountain ranges of the northern part described above give way just south of the isthmus to blocks of short, parallel ranges aligned north-south, so that the southern portion trends to the southeast and becomes much wider. In areas such as the west coast between southern Thailand and northwestern Malaysia, distinctive karst-limestone landscapes have developed. Peaks on the peninsula range from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in elevation.Some Arctic Dinos Lived in Herds
By Sid Perkins
Just as interesting, however, is how this was discovered. Scientists didnāt look at a single fossil bone.
Instead, they analyzed a large number of preserved footprints on a mountainside located toward the
southern end of central Alaska.
Anthony Fiorillo works at the Perot Museum of Nature and Science in Dallas, Texas. As a vertebrate
paleontologist, he studies the fossils of creatures with backbones. In 2007, he was part of a research
team exploring Denali National Park. āWe rounded the corner and there they were,ā he recalls.
Thousands of footprints had been preserved in stone. āIt was amazing.ā
Dinosaurs died out more than 65 million years ago (not
counting birds, their modern-day relatives). So, itās a bit
surprising that scientists know so much about these
ancient creatures. Now, a new study reveals that a certain
type of duckbilled dinosaur lived in the Arctic year-round.
These animals also traveled in herds that included many
age groups, they find. The creatures even appear to have
gone through a āteenage growth spurt.ā
Those tracks pepper a steep patch of exposed rock about twice as
long as a football field and up to 60 meters (roughly 200 feet) wide.
They sit at least 160 kilometers (100 miles) north of the Gulf of Alaska.
Between 69 million and 72 million years ago, that now-rocky material
was muddy sediment on a floodplain near a seacoast, Fiorillo explains.
The hadrosaurs walked across the squishy mud. Later, the footprints
they left turned to stone.
Previous studies suggested adult duckbills took care of their young,
says Fiorillo. The new evidence that these dinosaurs truly traveled in
herds with multiple age groups confirms that parents cared for their
young well beyond the time they left the nest, his team concludes. The
researchers published their findings June 30 in Geology.
Ā© Science News for Students
Thousands of tracks cover this
rocky mountainside in Alaskaās
Denali National Park. They
provide a wealth of information
about the size, age and lifestyle
of certain dinosaurs.
COURTESY OF PEROT MUSEUM OF
NATURE AND SCIENCE
EVIDENCE FOR HERDS O F DINOSAURS
Small meat-eating dinosaurs called theropods had left behind a few of the tracks that Fiorilloās team
found in Denali. Birds had left some others. But the vast majority came from creatures called
hadrosaurs. These large plant-eating duckbilled dinosaurs had been quite common during the
Cretaceous Period. That helps explain one of their nicknames: ācattle of the Cretaceous.ā
For the new study, the researchers focused only on the hadrosaur tracks. More than half of the
footprints were preserved so well that they had clear impressions of the skin on the dinosaursā feet.
Most tracks had a similar level of preservation. That suggests all were probably left within a short
period. Other fossils in the nearby rocks, including insect burrows, suggest these hadrosaurs had left
their footprints during the summer. These are trace fossils ā evidence of ancient life other than a
preserved carcass or bone.
At the time these dinosaurs lived, Fiorillio says, the average temperature in the warmest months was
between 10Ā° and 12Ā° Celsius (50Ā° and 54Ā° Fahrenheit). Thatās about what conditions are like today
along the border between Canada and the lower 48 U.S. states, he notes.
The team measured a large sample of the duckbillsā footprints. They fell into four distinct size ranges.
The largest tracks, presumably made by adults, measured about 64 centimeters (25 inches) across. The
smallest tracks, 8 centimeters (3 inches) wide, were likely left by young duckbills. They would have
been no more than a year old. Tracks of two other size groups were probably made by juveniles and
near-adults.
These data suggest the community of hadrosaurs included four different age groups.
Ā© Science News for Students
A hadrosaur footprint made
roughly 70 million years ago. For
scale, the long blue bar at right is
10 centimeters long; each small
blue or white bar measures 1
centimeter.
COURTESY OF PEROT MUSEUM OF NATURE
AND SCIENCE
Ā© Science News for Students
THESE DINOSAURS DIDNāT MIGRATE
About 84 percent of the tracks sampled for the new study had been left by older hadrosaurs ā adults or
near-adults. Roughly 13 percent came from the youngest members of the herd. And a mere 3 percent
came from herd members considered to be juveniles, says Fiorillo. The rarity of tracks by these tweens
suggests that the young of this species had a rapid growth spurt. If true, they would have spent relatively
little time at this vulnerable size ā and therefore left very few tracks.
āWhatās really neat is how many small tracks there are,ā notes Anthony Martin. An ichnologist ā or
expert in trace fossils ā he works at Emory University in Atlanta, Ga.
Other scientists had analyzed fossil bones from duckbills. These studies had hinted that the equivalent of
adolescent hadrosaurs would have experienced growth spurts. But the new findings are āthe best
evidence that Iāve seen,ā says Eric Snively. Heās a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Wisconsin-
La Crosse. āThis is a great study,ā he adds, āand further evidence that juvenile hadrosaurs grew up in an
eye-blink.ā
Also previously, researchers had proposed that Arctic dinosaurs migrated farther south for the winter.
Thatās because even if the region was much warmer than it is today, nights in the high Arctic would have
been 24 hours long. So, with no sunshine for several months, Alaska would have had long periods of very
bleak, chilly weather.
But finding juveniles in the herd
strongly suggests that these
dinosaurs remained in the Arctic all
year. Thatās because adolescents and
preadolescents wouldnāt have had
the strength or stamina to make
those long treks, Fiorillo maintains.
Field work is often harsh. Paleontologists studying the dinosaur
footprints here on an Alaskan mountainside sometimes worked
in cold and fog.
COURTESY OF PEROT MUSEUM OF NATURE AND SCIENCE
Ā© Science News for Students
The presence of very young dinosaurs might have been expected, he notes: If this were a nesting region,
the babies would have hatched sometime just before summer. And remember, thatās when these tracks
were left. But that wouldnāt explain the juveniles, he says.
The teamās findings āsuggest that these dinosaurs were overwintering in Alaska somehow,ā says Snively.
At the time, the average temperature in the region remained above freezing even during the winter, he
notes. But, he adds, āthis study raises interesting issues about how the dinosaurs could live in the region
when it was pretty dark for several months at a time.āWhat Is a Tornado? The sky is dark far away. Something moves down from the clouds. It spins across the land. It sounds like a very loud train. A tornado is coming! A tornado is a spinning cloud. It is shaped like a funnel. Its winds can reach 300 miles per hour. That is faster than a race car. The spinning air pulls things up. It can toss a car in the air. It can even destroy, or ruin a house. A tornado can be dangerous. It can cause harm to people and places. How Does a Tornado Form? A tornado is a kind of weather. Weather is the condition of the air. Most tornadoes begin as a kind of weather called a thunderstorm. Thunderstorms are harsh rainstorms with thunder and lightning. These rough storms have high winds and heavy rain. When high winds spin and touch the ground, a tornado is born. Most tornadoes do not stay on the ground for long. When they do, they can cause a lot of damage, or harm. A tornado is a big event! Where Do Most Tornadoes Happen? More tornadoes happen in the United States than anywhere in the world. Most of them form in the middle part of our country. Scientists think this might be because warm, wet air from the Gulf of Mexico crashes with the cool, dry air from Canada. This area is known as Tornado Alley. How do Tornadoes Affect People? Tornadoes affect people and towns in many ways. Weak tornadoes break branches from trees or damage signs. Strong tornadoes can destroy buildings. People who live in areas where there are many tornadoes always think about the weather. They listen to the radio and watch news reports on television. Schools provide tornado drills so children can practice being safe in the event of a tornado. Teams of people work together to repair the damage caused by a tornado. How Can You Stay Safe? There are ways to prevent, or stop harm during a tornado. News reports use the words tornado warning to give notice that a tornado has been seen. Following safety rules can help everyone stay safe during a tornado!Pre-Round: Get to Know the Universities of the GulfTHE BATTLE OF THE PHILIPPINE SEA Occured in the Philippine Sea and Marinas The battle engaged the bulk of thepagan American forces, and prevented the Japanese from reinforcing, their fleet in the ā¢Marianas. ā¢A month after, the Japanese LOST THEIR 4 best aircraft carriers in the Battle of Midway, an island northwest of Pearl "Harbor. 1. The Batle of the Philipine Sea lasted just one day June 19- June 20 1944 3. is also called the "Marianas Turkey Shootā The Battle of the Coral Sea ļ»æļ»æThe Coral Sea is Between New Guinea and Australia ļ»æļ»æThe Japanese Were Trying to Attack Australia! ļ»æļ»æThe U.S. Navy and the Japanese Navy Fought! ļ»æļ»æNobody Won! U.S. Was Able to STOP the Attack on Australia! (Victory!) The American fleet defeated the Japanese. American planes bombarded Japanese installation in Manila from the air. Air strikes were also carried out in the Visayas. Battle of Okinawa: Battle Details ļ»æļ»æThe attack on Okinawa took heavy toll on both sides of the fighting... ļ»æļ»æThe Americans lost 7,373 men killed and 32,056 wounded on land. ļ»æļ»æAt sea, the Americans lost 5,000 killed and 4,600 wounded. ļ»æļ»æThe Japanese lost 107,000 killed and 7,400 men taken prisoner. ļ»æļ»æThe Japanese may have lost another 20,000 dead as a result of American tactics whereby Japanese troops were incinerated where they fought. ļ»æļ»æThe Americans also lost 36 ships. 368 ships were also damaged. 763 aircraft were destroyed. ļ»æļ»æThe Japanese lost 16 ships sunk and over 4,000 aircraft were lost. battle facts -the japanese launched fierce kamikaze attacks l-arge amouunts of civillian deaths -japanese soldiers using civilians as human shields Americans ended with more triumphs in the battles like in: ļ»æļ»æGeneral MacArthur and the Allies next turned to the Island of Iwo Jima ļ»æļ»æThe island was critical to the Allies as a base for an attack on Japan ļ»æļ»æIt was called the most heavily defended spot on earth Allied and Japanese forces suffered heavy casualties IWO JIMA American soldiers plant the flag ol the Island of Iwo Jima after their victory Battle of Leyte Gulf ļ»æļ»æ"Second Battle of the Philippine Sea". ļ»æļ»æTime: October 23 - 26, 1944 during WW. ļ»æļ»æLocation: Leyte Gulf in Philippines (East coast), Philippine islands of Leyte, Samar, and Luzon. ļ»æļ»æLargest naval battle in WWII. Leyte was secured and was liberated from the hands of the Japanese Americans decided to launch their attack in Leyte since the weak side of the Japanese fleet was in Visayas. ļ»æļ»æHeavy bombing at the Leyte beaches cleared the way for the landing in Palo, Leyte. ļ»æļ»æLeading the American troops were General Douglas MacArthur and President OsmeƱa, who took over after the death of President Quezon in Saranak Lake in New York. the battle for the liberation of manila The commonwealth government capital was transferred from tacloban to Manila. Manila once again became the seat of the national leadership. ON july 4, 1945, general macarthur announced the total liberation of the Philippines ā¢ The Commonwealth government capital was transferred from Tacloban to Manila. Manila once again became the seat of the national leadership. On July 4, 1945, General MacArthur announced the total liberation of the Philippines. Americans surprised the Japanese with the landing of troops in Lingayen Gulf in Pangasinan. ā¢ The Filipino guerillas had already cleared the area and neutralized many of the Japanese forces. The first target was the UST, which was used by the Japanese as a camp for civilian prisoners of war, and they were able to free them. ā¢ More than 1000 POWs from Bataan and Corregidor were also freed from the Bilibid Prisons. ā¢ The battle of Manila was recorded as the fiercest urban fighting in the entire Pacific War. WATERLOO DAILY COURIER-NEWSPAPER āPEACE! WAR ENDS; JAPANESE ACCEPT ALLIED TERMS. ON EMPEROR" On August 6, due to persistent refusal of Japan to yield, another atomic bomb was dropped in the shipbuilding city of Nagasaki. ļ»æļ»æOn August 15, V-J Day (Victory in Japan), Emperor Hirohito finally admitted defeat and on September 3, 1945 the document of surrender was signed on board of the U.S. battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. ļ»æļ»æWith the liberation of the Philippines, the Americar troops moved on to finally end the war in Asia. ļ»æļ»æThe Japanese cities of Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya and Kure were bombed. ļ»æļ»æIn July 26, the allies demanded surrender but the Japanese continued to hold on to their belief that surrender is a dishonor. ļ»æļ»æAtomic bomb was dropped on the populous city of Hiroshima, 60% of the city was destroyed. It was estimated that there were more than 80 000 people died on the spot and more than 37 000 suffered severe injuries. ļ»æļ»æToday, the HIROSHIMA SHRINE serves as a reminder of th horrors of war and the need to preserve PEACE in the world. THE POSTWAR PHILIPPINE COMMONWEALTH-ā¢ Philippine Commonwealth resumed. OsmeƱa was confronted with a war - ravaged country with no financial resources for PROBLEMS ā¢ Poverty ā¢ Destruction of Properties ā¢ Unemployment ā¢ Price Increase ā¢ Hoarding ā¢ Graft and Corruption HINDRANCES -Rehabilitation of INDUSTRIES COULD NOT BE DONE BECAUSE OF LACK OF FUND -RAILWAYS WERE DESTROYED THAT LED TO SLOW PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORTATION SOLUTION -PCAU (Philippine Civil Affairs Unit) was established by MacArthur to provide emergency relief in areas liberated by the Americans. - It organized food distribution centers. CHALLENGES TO INDEPENDENCE ā¢ On April 30, 1946, the Philippine the US President. BIASED AGREEMENTS: Rehabilitation or the Tydings Act of 1946, passed by the US Congress, was approved by Commission ā¢ This Act created the US Philippine War Damage The Act also provided for the transfer of $100,000,000 surplus property of the United States to the Philippines. The Philippine Armed Forces received large quantities of valuable military equipment and supplies. BIASED AGREEMENTS: ā¢ The United States Congress offered $800 million for post World War Il rebuilding funds if the Bell Trade Act was ratified by the Philippine Congress Parity rights granting U.S. citizens and corporations rights to Philippine natural resources equal to (in parity with) those of Philippine citizens The Philippines used to celebrate its Independence Day on July 4, and not June 12, by virtue of the Truman Proclamation in 1946. In the early 1960s, however, the Philippine Historical Association lobbied to bring back June 12 as our Independence Day. In 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal issued a proclamation to make the change official. DECLARATION OF PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE ā¢ On July 4, 1946, the Americans granted independence to the Philippines.Department of English Language, Arab Gulf School, World Diabetes DayWhy did events in the Gulf matter? The rise of Saddam Hussein