What does HbA1c measure in the context of diabetes management?

Average blood glucose levels over the past 2-3 months

Blood glucose levels after a meal

Presence of insulin in the blood

Which of the following statements about HbA1c testing is true?

It provides a long-term indication of blood glucose control.

It is only useful for type 1 diabetes.

It can be used to diagnose acute hypoglycemia.

It measures immediate blood glucose levels.

What is the role of HbA1c in diabetes management?

Monitoring long-term glucose control

Determining immediate blood sugar levels

What does an HbA1c level of 8% indicate for a diabetic patient?

Excellent blood glucose control

Which of the following can affect the accuracy of the HbA1c test?

Blood disorders such as sickle cell disease

HEMOGLOBIN A1c (HbA1c)

Hemoglobin Energizer quiz

Cbc: HEMOGLOBIN

Cbc: MEAN CORPUSCULAR HEMOGLOBIN

Cbc: MEAN CORPUSCULAR HEMOGLOBIN CONCENTRATION

MELANOCYTES Normal skin tone is determined by: Melanin Carotene -orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables Hemoglobin-red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries Forms a supranuclear cap and protects nuclei from UV radiation Creates pigmentation of skin; tanning: UV light causes darkening of existing melanin and increased rate of melanin synthesis and transfer to keratinocytes Proliferation of melanocytes can produce moles.

Gangguan pada Sistem Sirkulasi Manusia Sistem sirkulasi berfungsi mengedarkan darah, oksigen, dan zat makanan ke seluruh tubuh serta mengangkut sisa metabolisme. Jika sistem ini terganggu, tubuh bisa cepat lelah, sakit, bahkan berbahaya. Berikut gangguan-gangguannya: 1. Anemia Anemia, yaitu keadaan di mana jumlah eritrosit di dalam hemoglobin di bawah batas normal. Artinya: Anemia adalah kondisi ketika sel darah merah atau hemoglobin dalam tubuh kurang, sehingga darah tidak mampu membawa oksigen dengan baik ke seluruh tubuh. Akibatnya: Penderita anemia mudah lelah, pusing, lemas, dan terlihat pucat karena tubuh kekurangan oksigen. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Seseorang cepat capek saat beraktivitas, mudah mengantuk di sekolah, dan merasa lemas meskipun tidak melakukan aktivitas berat. 2. Hemofilia Hemofilia adalah kelainan yang ditandai dengan sulitnya darah untuk membeku. Penyakit keturunan ini disebabkan oleh defisiensi faktor pembekuan darah. Artinya: Hemofilia merupakan penyakit bawaan yang menyebabkan darah sulit berhenti ketika terjadi luka. Akibatnya: Luka kecil dapat menyebabkan perdarahan yang lama dan berisiko berbahaya jika tidak ditangani. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Saat penderita tergores atau jatuh, darah keluar lebih lama dibandingkan orang normal meskipun lukanya kecil. 3. Talasemia Talasemia adalah kelainan pada bentuk eritrosit. Akibatnya, eritrosit di dalam tubuh penderita akan mudah rusak, rapuh, dan kurang optimal dalam mengikat oksigen. Artinya: Talasemia merupakan penyakit keturunan yang memengaruhi bentuk dan fungsi sel darah merah. Akibatnya: Tubuh menjadi cepat lelah, pertumbuhan terganggu, dan penderita sering membutuhkan transfusi darah. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Anak dengan talasemia terlihat kurang aktif dan harus rutin memeriksakan diri ke rumah sakit. 4. Hipotensi (Tekanan darah rendah) Hipotensi adalah keadaan di mana tekanan darah arteri menurun sampai di bawah batas normal, misalnya 90/60 mmHg untuk sistol/diastol. Artinya: Hipotensi adalah kondisi tekanan darah terlalu rendah. Akibatnya: Penderita dapat mengalami pusing, lemas, dan bahkan pingsan. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Seseorang merasa pusing saat berdiri terlalu cepat setelah duduk atau berbaring. 5. Hipertensi (Tekanan darah tinggi) Hipertensi adalah keadaan di mana tekanan darah arteri meningkat sampai di atas normal, misalnya 140/90 mmHg. Keadaan ini bisa disebut tekanan darah tinggi. Artinya: Hipertensi adalah kondisi tekanan darah lebih tinggi dari batas normal. Akibatnya: Dapat menyebabkan sakit kepala, gangguan jantung, stroke, dan kerusakan pembuluh darah jika tidak dikontrol. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Orang yang sering makan makanan asin, jarang berolahraga, dan sering stres lebih berisiko mengalami hipertensi. 6. Trombus Trombus adalah kelainan di mana terdapat gumpalan darah yang menyumbat pembuluh darah. Artinya: Trombus adalah penggumpalan darah yang menghambat aliran darah di dalam pembuluh. Akibatnya: Aliran darah menjadi tidak lancar dan dapat menyebabkan kerusakan organ. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Orang yang duduk terlalu lama tanpa bergerak berisiko mengalami penggumpalan darah di kaki. 7. Varises Varises adalah kelainan yang disebabkan oleh pelebaran pembuluh vena. Pelebaran biasa terjadi di anggota tubuh bagian bawah, contohnya betis. Artinya: Varises terjadi ketika pembuluh darah vena melebar karena aliran darah tidak lancar. Akibatnya: Kaki terasa pegal, berat, dan pembuluh darah tampak menonjol. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Sering dialami oleh orang yang berdiri terlalu lama seperti guru, pedagang, atau perawat.

Nutrition Notes Nutrition- study of how your body uses food Process by which body uses nutrients How you look and feel Resist diseases and illness How you perform physically and mentally Nutrients: substances in food your body needs to grow, repair and supply energy to your body cells 6 Classes of Nutrients 1.Carbohydrates: 1 gram= 4 calories 2. Protein: 1 gram- 4 calories 3. Fats: 1 gram= 9 calories 4.Water 5. Vitamins 6. Minerals Calorie: measurement of energy in food Metabolism: Rate at which body burns energy(calories) Hunger: physical drive to eat Appetite: pshycological desire for food What influences your food choices: Foods you like Health Reasons Family and Culture Time & Money Advertising Emotions Friends Social Media: Modeling Nutrients Carbohydrates: your body’s main source of energy sugars/starches in food 45%-65% of diet #1 source of energy Simple: sugars converted to glucose= energy (fruits, dairy, honey, some manufactured foods) Complex: sugars linked together (starches) (grains, bread, pasta, beans, vegetables) Fiber: tough, indigestible carbohydrates Cleans our digestive system Prevents some types of cancer Prevents heart disease (fruits, vegetables, whole grains,nuts) 2. Protein: growth and repair of body tissues Made up of chemicals called “amino acids” Basic building material of all body cells (muscles, bones, skin, internal organs) Secondary source of energy protein(hemoglobin) attaches to oxygen in blood Functions as hormones regulating body functions 10-15% of diet *Body uses 20 Amino Acids found in food ( body produces 11 and 9 must come from diet) Essential amino acids: 9 amino acids body doesn't produce Complete Amino Acids: foods that contain all 9 essential amino acids ( animal products) Incomplete Amino Acids: food products that do not contain all 9 essential amino acids. Fats 15-25% of diet Secondary source of energy Blood clotting Controlling inflammation Maintains healthy skin/hair absorb /transport fat soluble vitamins Regulates body temperature Types of Fat Unsaturated: “good” fat Liquid at room temperature Can help fight heart disease (veg oil, nuts) Saturated: “bad” fat Solid at room temp Clogs arteries Causes strokes, heart attack, diabetes (animal products, meat, dairy) Cholesterol: waxy like fat substance found in meat products HDL: good type of cholesterol Body creates(liver) Creates cell wall, hormones, and vit D LDL: bad cholesterol- found in foods (clogs arteries) 4. Trans Fat: “one of the worst type of fats” Formed by a process called “hydrogenation”: adding Hydrogen molecules to unsaturated fats to make it more solid and resistant to chemical change. Vitamins A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. Vitamins are classified as either fat soluble (vitamins A, D, E and K) or water soluble (vitamins B and C). This difference between the two groups is very important. It determines how each vitamin acts within the body. The fat soluble vitamins are soluble in lipids (fats). Fat soluble vitamins can be stored in our body Water soluble vitamins must be taken every day Human body produces some amounts of Vitamin D & K

Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1− . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2− as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2−) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic mass−atomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2− has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1− . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2− . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2−3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2−3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1− 2− 3− 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO2−3 arsenate, AsO3−3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrO−3 chromate, CrO2−4 phosphite, PO3−3 chlorate, ClO−3 dichromate, Cr2O2−7 phosphate, PO3−4 chlorite, ClO−2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4 cyanide, CN− oxalate, C2O2−4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO−4 peroxide, O2−2 hydrogen carbonate, HCO−3 silicate, SiO2−3 hydrogen sulfate, HSO−4 sulfate, SO2−4 hydrogen sulfide, HS− sulfite, SO2−3 hydroxide, OH− hypochlorite, ClO− nitrate, NO−3 nitrite, NO−2 perchlorate, ClO−4 permanganate, MnO−4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO−3) and nitrite (NO−2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClO− , hypochlorite ClO−2 , chlorite ClO−3 , chlorate ClO−4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.

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