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Comprehension Test: Superbook – Revelation Theme: Forgiveness, Salvation, and God’s Victory 🔹 Remembering (Items 1–4) What mistake did Chris make at the beginning of the episode? A. He lied to his parents B. He started a fire accidentally C. He broke a valuable item D. He skipped school Answer: B Who are the three main characters in the episode? A. Peter, Mary, and John B. Chris, Joy, and Gizmo C. David, Sarah, and Eli D. Paul, Ruth, and Micah Answer: B Where does Superbook transport the children? A. To the Garden of Eden B. To the time of Jesus’ birth C. To the end times D. To the Exodus Answer: C Who receives visions in heaven during the episode? A. Moses B. Apostle Paul C. Apostle John D. King Solomon Answer: C 🔹 Understanding (Items 5–8) Why does Chris believe his mistake is unforgivable? A. He was punished severely B. He hurt someone intentionally C. He fears the consequences are too great D. He doesn’t understand forgiveness Answer: C What does the descent of the New Jerusalem symbolize? A. The end of all prophecy B. The beginning of war C. Eternal life and God’s promise D. The destruction of the earth Answer: C What lesson does Chris learn from his father? A. That mistakes are permanent B. That forgiveness is earned C. That God’s mercy is unconditional D. That punishment is necessary Answer: C What theme is emphasized throughout the episode? A. Justice and revenge B. Power and control C. Forgiveness and salvation D. Wealth and prosperity Answer: C 🔹 Applying (Items 9–12) If a student feels guilty for a mistake, what lesson from the episode could help them? A. Avoid responsibility B. Seek revenge C. Trust in God’s forgiveness D. Hide the truth Answer: C How might Joy’s experience in heaven help her understand God’s plan? A. She sees the consequences of sin B. She learns about ancient history C. She witnesses God’s ultimate victory D. She meets famous prophets Answer: C What action could reflect the message of salvation in daily life? A. Ignoring others’ mistakes B. Offering forgiveness to someone who hurt you C. Avoiding difficult conversations D. Seeking personal gain Answer: B How could Gizmo’s role support the group’s understanding of Revelation? A. By distracting them with jokes B. By translating the visions C. By guiding them through spiritual truths D. By fixing technical problems Answer: C 🔹 Analyzing (Items 13–16) What contrast is shown between Chris’s fear and the final message of the episode? A. Fear leads to punishment; forgiveness leads to peace B. Fear is stronger than faith C. Mistakes are never forgiven D. God ignores human emotions Answer: A Why is the battle between angels and Satan significant? A. It shows the power of war B. It represents the struggle for heaven C. It symbolizes the victory of good over evil D. It predicts future disasters Answer: C What does the episode suggest about the nature of sin? A. It is always punished B. It can be forgiven through God’s mercy C. It is inherited D. It defines a person’s worth Answer: B How do Chris’s emotions evolve throughout the episode? A. From joy to anger B. From guilt to hope C. From confusion to pride D. From fear to rebellion Answer: B 🔹 Evaluating (Items 17–18) Do you agree that no sin is too great for God’s forgiveness? Why might this be important for viewers? A. Yes, it teaches hope and redemption B. No, some sins are unforgivable C. Yes, but only for believers D. No, forgiveness must be earned Answer: A How effective is the use of apocalyptic imagery in teaching moral lessons? A. It confuses young viewers B. It dramatizes the message of salvation C. It distracts from the core message D. It promotes fear Answer: B 🔹 Creating (Items 19–20) If you were to write a reflection based on this episode, what theme would you focus on? A. The importance of punishment B. The beauty of heaven C. The power of forgiveness D. The fear of judgment Answer: C What title would best capture the message of the episode? A. “The Fire Within” B. “Mercy Wins” C. “The End of Days” D. “Judgment and Justice” Answer: BPlant cells have three kinds of structures that are not found in animal cells and that are extremely important to plant survival: plastids, central vacuoles, and cell walls. PLANT CELLS Most of the organelles and other parts of the cell just described are common to all eukaryotic cells. However, plant cells have three additional kinds of structures that are extremely important to plant function: cell walls, large central vacuoles, and plastids. To understand why plant cells have structures not found in ani- mal cells, consider how a plant’s lifestyle differs from an animal’s. Plants make their own carbon-containing molecules directly from carbon taken in from the environment. Plant cells take carbon diox- ide gas from the air, and in a process called photosynthesis, they convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars. The organelles and structures in plant cells are shown in Figure 4-21. SECTION 4 OBJECTIVES ● List three structures that are present in plant cells but not in animal cells. ● Compare the plasma membrane, the primary cell wall, and the secondary cell wall. ● Explain the role of the central vacuole. ● Describe the roles of plastids in the life of a plant. ● Identify features that distinguish prokaryotes, eukaryotes, plant cells, and animal cells. VOCABULARY cell wall central vacuole plastid chloroplast thylakoid chlorophyll Chloroplast Golgi apparatus Mitochondrion Cell membrane Nucleolus Nucleus Cytoskeleton Rough endoplasmic reticulum Pore Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Central vacuole Ribosome Cell wall In addition to containing almost all of the types of organelles that animal cells contain, plant cells contain three unique features. Those features are the cell wall, the central vacuole, and plastids, such as chloroplasts. FIGURE 4-21 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 88 CHAPTER 4 CELL WALL The cell wall is a rigid layer that lies outside the cell’s plasma membrane. Plant cell walls contain a carbohydrate called cellulose. Cellulose is embedded in a matrix of proteins and other carbohy- drates that form a stiff box around each cell. Pores in the cell wall allow water, ions, and some molecules to enter and exit the cell. Primary and Secondary Cell Walls The main component of the cell wall, cellulose, is made directly on the surface of the plasma membrane by enzymes that travel along the membrane. These enzymes are guided by microtubules inside the plasma membrane. Growth of the primary cell wall occurs in one direction, based on the orientation of the microtubules. Other components of the cell wall are made in the ER. These materials move in vesicles to the Golgi and then to the cell surface. Some plants also produce a secondary cell wall. When the cell stops growing, it secretes the secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall. The secondary cell wall is very strong but can no longer expand. The wood in desks and tabletops is made of billions of secondary cell walls. The cells inside the walls have died and disintegrated. CENTRAL VACUOLE Plant cells may contain a reservoir that stores large amounts of water. The central vacuole is a large, fluid-filled organelle that stores not only water but also enzymes, metabolic wastes, and other materials. The central vacuole, shown in Figure 4-22, forms as other smaller vacuoles fuse together. Central vacuoles can make up 90 percent of the plant cell’s volume and can push all of the other organelles into a thin layer against the plasma membrane. When water is plentiful, it fills a plant’s vacuoles. The cells expand and the plant stands upright. In a dry period, the vacuoles lose water, the cells shrink, and the plant wilts. Other Vacuoles Some vacuoles store toxic materials. The vacuoles of acacia trees, for example, store poisons that provide a defense against plant-eating ani- mals. Tobacco plant cells store the toxin nicotine in a storage vacuole. Other vacuoles store plant pigments, such as the colorful pigments found in rose petals. The central vacuole occupies up to 90 percent of the volume of some plant cells. The central vacuole stores water and helps keep plant tissue firm. FIGURE 4-22 Central vacuole Nucleus Chloroplast Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 89 PLASTIDS Plastids are another unique feature of plant cells. Plastids are organelles that, like mitochondria, are surrounded by a double mem- brane and contain their own DNA. There are several types of plastids, including chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts. Chloroplasts Chloroplasts use light energy to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. As Figure 4-23 shows, each chloroplast contains a system of flattened, membranous sacs called thylakoids. Thylakoids contain the green pigment chlorophyll, the main mole- cule that absorbs light and captures light energy for the cell. Chloroplasts can be found not only in plant cells but also in a wide variety of eukaryotic algae, such as seaweed. Chloroplast DNA is very similar to the DNA of certain photosyn- thetic bacteria. Plant cell chloroplasts can arise only by the divi- sion of preexisting chloroplasts. These facts may suggest that chloroplasts are descendants of ancient prokaryotic cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are also thought to be the descendants of ancient prokaryotic cells that were incorporated into plant cells through a process called endosymbiosis. Chromoplasts Chromoplasts are plastids that contain colorful pigments and that may or may not take part in photosynthesis. Carrot root cells, for example, contain chromoplasts filled with the orange pigment carotene. Chromoplasts in flower petal cells contain red, purple, yellow, or white pigments. Other Plastids Several other types of plastids share the general features of chloro- plasts but differ in content. For example, amyloplasts store starch. Chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and amyloplasts arise from a common precursor, called a proplastid. Thylakoid Inner membrane Outer membrane chloroplast from the Greek chloros, meaning “pale green,” and plastos, meaning “formed” Word Roots and Origins A chloroplast captures energy from sunlight and uses that energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and other carbohydrates. FIGURE 4-23 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 90 CHAPTER 4 COMPARING CELLS All cells share common features, such as a cell membrane, cyto- plasm, ribosomes, and genetic material. But there is a high level of diversity among cells, as shown in Figure 4-24. There are signifi- cant differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In addition, plant cells have features that are not found in animal cells. Prokaryotes Versus Eukaryotes Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in that prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotes have a region, called a nucleoid, in which their genetic material is concen- trated. However, prokaryotes lack an internal membrane system. Plant Cells Versus Animal Cells Three unique features distinguish plant cells from animal cells. One is the production of a cell wall by plant cells. Plant cells contain a large central vacuole. Third, plant cells contain a variety of plastids, which are not found in animal cells. Cell walls, central vacuoles, and plastids are unique features that are important to plant function. 1. Identify three unique features of plant cells. 2. List the differences between the plasma mem- brane, the primary cell wall, and the secondary cell wall. 3. Identify three functions of plastids. 4. Name three things that may be stored in vacuoles. 5. Describe the features that distinguish prokary- otes from eukaryotes and plant cells from animal cells. CRITICAL THINKINGHow to Bake a Cake and make buttercream frosting - Starter QuizJack-o-Lanterns What Is a Jack-o'-Lantern? Carved pumpkins are called jack-o'- lanterns. Jack-o'-lanterns are used to decorate for Halloween. People started carving jack-o'-lanterns more than a hundred years ago. At first, people didn't carve pumpkins. They used other vegetables instead. An old fable from Ireland may tell how people began carving jack-o'-lanterns. The fable is about a man named Stingy Jack, who liked to play tricks on everyone. When he died, he was cursed to walk in darkness forever. He carved a turnip and put a light inside. His ghost was known as "Jack of the Lantern," and then "Jack-o'-lantern." Modern Jack-o'-Lanterns The Stingy Jack fable later became part of a night called All Hallows' Eve. In Europe, people lit fires and dressed up to keep away ghosts. In Ireland and England, people carved scary faces on vegetables and placed a light inside. All Hallows' Eve later became known as Halloween. When jack-o'-lantern carving was brought to the United States, people started using pumpkins. About 1.5 billion pounds (more than 680 million kg) of pumpkins are grown in the United States each year. Carving Jack-o'-Lanterns Carving pumpkins is fun for people of all ages. Smooth pumpkins work well for jack-o'-lanterns. Some people buy carving kits, while others carve without any help. First, with help from a parent, cut a hole in the top of the pumpkin to make a lid. Next, scoop out the inside flesh and seeds. Draw a design on the pumpkin, and then carve it carefully. After the pumpkin is carved, place a candle or other light inside. Finally, put the pumpkin lid back on toр. Jack-o'-Lantern Events Many cities have events to show off their carved pumpkins. In Hudson Valley, New York, jack-o'-lanterns make up a big display with spooky sounds and music. Pumpkins are used to make snakes, dinosaurs, and a dome carved with twinkling stars. A huge display in Los Angeles, California, has pumpkin cars and dinosaurs, and pumpkin carvings of famous people. The artists carve their pumpkins at the event while people watch. A town in New Hampshire broke a world record for the most lit jacko'-lanterns. The town had thirty thousand jack-o'-lanterns lit at once! The Tradition Continues. Carving pumpkins into jack-o'- lanterns is a fun holiday activity. However they are carved, jack-о'- lanterns are a sure sign that Halloween is around the corner.Cell Size Cells differ not only in their shape but also in their size. A few types of cells are large enough to be seen by the unaided human eye. For example, the nerve cells that extend from a giraffe’s spinal cord to its foot can be 2 m (about 6 1/2 ft) long. A human egg cell is about the size of the period at the end of this sentence. Most cells, how- ever, are only 10 to 50 μm in diameter, or about 1/500 the size of the period at the end of this sentence. The size of a cell is limited by the relationship of the cell’s outer surface area to its volume, or its surface area–to-volume ratio. As a cell grows, its volume increases much faster than its surface area does, as shown in Figure 4-5. This trend is important because the materials needed by a cell (such as nutrients and oxygen) and the wastes produced by a cell (such as carbon dioxide) must pass into and out of the cell through its surface. If a cell were to become very large, the volume would increase much more than the surface area. Therefore, the surface area would not allow materials to enter or leave the cell quickly enough to meet the cell’s needs. As a result, most cells are microscopic in size. Comparing Surface Cells Materials microscope, prepared slides of plant (dicot) stem and ani- mal (human) skin, pencil, paper Procedure Examine slides by using medium magnification (100). Observe and draw the sur- face cells of the plant stem and the animal skin. Analysis How do the surface cells of each organism differ from the cells beneath the surface cells? What is the function of the surface cells? Explain how surface cells are suited to their function based on their shape. Quick Lab Small cells can exchange substances more readily than large cells because small objects have a higher surface area–to-volume ratio. FIGURE 4-5 mb06se_csfs02.qxd 5/18/07 10:54 AM Page 73 74 CHAPTER 4 BASIC PARTS OF A CELL Despite the diversity among cells, three basic features are common to all cell types. All cells have an outer boundary, an interior sub- stance, and a control region. Plasma Membrane The cell’s outer boundary, called the plasma membrane (or the cell membrane), covers a cell’s surface and acts as a barrier between the inside and the outside of a cell. All materials enter or exit through the plasma membrane. The surface of a plasma mem- brane is shown in Figure 4-6a. Cytoplasm The region of the cell that is within the plasma membrane and that includes the fluid, the cytoskeleton, and all of the organelles except the nucleus is called the cytoplasm. The part of the cytoplasm that includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not membrane-bound organelles is the cytosol. About 20 percent of the cytosol is made up of protein. Control Center Cells carry coded information in the form of DNA for regulating their functions and reproducing themselves. The DNA in some types of cells floats freely inside the cell. Other cells have a mem- brane-bound organelle that contains a cell’s DNA. This membrane- bound structure is called the nucleus. Most of the functions of a eukaryotic cell are controlled by the cell’s nucleus. The nucleus is often the most prominent structure within a eukaryotic cell. It maintains its shape with the help of a protein skeleton called the nuclear matrix. The nucleus of a typical animal cell is shown in Figure 4-6b. Most animal cells have a cell membrane, a nucleus, and a variety of other organelles embedded in a watery substance. The surface of the cell membrane can be seen in (a). The organelles inside the cell are labeled in the diagram (b). FIGURE 4-6 (a) (b) Mitochondrion Microfilaments Lysosome Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Ribosomes Cell membrane Microtubules Rough ER Nuclear pore Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Nucleus Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Cell wall Ribosome Cell membrane Peptidoglycan Pili Flagellum DNA CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 75 A prokaryotic cell lacks a membrane- bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Most prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells are. FIGURE 4-7 A white blood cell (eukaryotic) changes shape as it attacks purple- stained bacterial cells that are much smaller (prokaryotic). FIGURE 4-8 TWO BASIC TYPES OF CELLS Fossil evidence suggests that the earliest cells on Earth were simple cells similar to some present-day bacteria. As cells evolved, they differentiated into two major types: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes Prokaryotes (proh-KAR-ee-OHTS) are organisms that lack a membrane- bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Although prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus, their genetic information—in the form of DNA—is often concentrated in a part of the cell called the nucleoid. Figure 4-7 shows a typical prokaryotic cell. Prokaryotes are divided into two domains: Bacteria and Archaea (ahr-KEE-uh). The domain Bacteria includes organisms that are similar to the first cellular life-forms. The domain Archaea includes organisms that are thought to be more closely related to eukaryotic cells found in all other kingdoms of life. Eukaryotes Organisms made up of one or more cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles are called eukaryotes (yoo-KAR-ee-OHTS). Eukaryotic cells also have a variety of subcellular structures called organelles, well-defined, intracellular bodies that perform specific functions for the cell. Many organelles are surrounded by a mem- brane. The organelles carry out cellular processes just as a person’s pancreas, heart, and other organs carry out a person’s life processes. Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokary- otic cells, as seen in Figure 4-8, which shows a white blood cell (eukaryote) destroying tiny bacterial cells (prokaryotes).Cells of different organisms and even cells within the same organism are very diverse in terms of shape, size, and internal organization. One theme that occurs again and again throughout biology is that form follows function. In other words, a cell’s function influences its physical features. Cell Shape The diversity in cell shapes reflects the different functions of cells. Compare the cell shapes shown in Figure 4-4. The long extensions that reach out in various directions from the nerve cell shown in Figure 4-4a allow the cell to send and receive nerve impulses. The flat, platelike shape of skin cells in Figure 4-4b suits their function of covering and protecting the surface of the body. As shown below, a cell’s shape can be simple or complex depending on the function of the cell. Each cell has a shape that has evolved to allow the cell to perform its function effectively. SECTION 2 OBJECTIVES ● Explain the relationship between cell shape and cell function. ● Identify the factor that limits cell size. ● Describe the three basic parts of a cell. ● Compare prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. ● Analyze the relationship among cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms. VOCABULARY plasma membrane cytoplasm cytosol nucleus prokaryote eukaryote organelle tissue organ organ system Cells have various shapes. (a) Nerve cells have long extensions. (b) Skin cells are flat and platelike. (c) Egg cells are spherical. (d) Some bacteria are rod shaped. (e) Some plant cells are rectangular. FIGURE 4-4 (a) Nerve cell (b) Skin cells (c) Egg cell (d) Bacterial cells (e) Plant cells Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 1. All cubes have volume and surface area. The total surface area is equal to the sum of the areas of each of the six sides (area = length X width). 2. If you split the first cube into eight smaller cubes, you get 48 sides. The volume remains constant, but the total surface area doubles. 3. If you split each of the eight cubes into eight smaller cubes, you have 64 cubes that together contain the same volume as the first cube. The total surface area, however, has doubled again. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 73 Cell Size Cells differ not only in their shape but also in their size. A few types of cells are large enough to be seen by the unaided human eye. For example, the nerve cells that extend from a giraffe’s spinal cord to its foot can be 2 m (about 6 1/2 ft) long. A human egg cell is about the size of the period at the end of this sentence. Most cells, how- ever, are only 10 to 50 μm in diameter, or about 1/500 the size of the period at the end of this sentence. The size of a cell is limited by the relationship of the cell’s outer surface area to its volume, or its surface area–to-volume ratio. As a cell grows, its volume increases much faster than its surface area does, as shown in Figure 4-5. This trend is important because the materials needed by a cell (such as nutrients and oxygen) and the wastes produced by a cell (such as carbon dioxide) must pass into and out of the cell through its surface. If a cell were to become very large, the volume would increase much more than the surface area. Therefore, the surface area would not allow materials to enter or leave the cell quickly enough to meet the cell’s needs. As a result, most cells are microscopic in size. Comparing Surface Cells Materials microscope, prepared slides of plant (dicot) stem and ani- mal (human) skin, pencil, paper Procedure Examine slides by using medium magnification (100). Observe and draw the sur- face cells of the plant stem and the animal skin. Analysis How do the surface cells of each organism differ from the cells beneath the surface cells? What is the function of the surface cells? Explain how surface cells are suited to their function based on their shape. Quick Lab Small cells can exchange substances more readily than large cells because small objects have a higher surface area–to-volume ratio. FIGURE 4-5 mb06se_csfs02.qxd 5/18/07 10:54 AM Page 73 74 CHAPTER 4 BASIC PARTS OF A CELL Despite the diversity among cells, three basic features are common to all cell types. All cells have an outer boundary, an interior sub- stance, and a control region. Plasma Membrane The cell’s outer boundary, called the plasma membrane (or the cell membrane), covers a cell’s surface and acts as a barrier between the inside and the outside of a cell. All materials enter or exit through the plasma membrane. The surface of a plasma mem- brane is shown in Figure 4-6a. Cytoplasm The region of the cell that is within the plasma membrane and that includes the fluid, the cytoskeleton, and all of the organelles except the nucleus is called the cytoplasm. The part of the cytoplasm that includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not membrane-bound organelles is the cytosol. About 20 percent of the cytosol is made up of protein. Control Center Cells carry coded information in the form of DNA for regulating their functions and reproducing themselves. The DNA in some types of cells floats freely inside the cell. Other cells have a mem- brane-bound organelle that contains a cell’s DNA. This membrane- bound structure is called the nucleus. Most of the functions of a eukaryotic cell are controlled by the cell’s nucleus. The nucleus is often the most prominent structure within a eukaryotic cell. It maintains its shape with the help of a protein skeleton called the nuclear matrix. The nucleus of a typical animal cell is shown inThe Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569) Most people in the North remained loyal to the Catholic noble families who controlled the north and their Catholic faith. When Elizabeth came to power, she promoted ‘new men’ (Protestants) from the gentry and the powerful Catholic nobles lost their power and influence. This led them to organise the most serious rebellion of Elizabeth’s reign in 1569. Why did the Northern Earl’s revolt? The Earls had lost their power when Elizabeth became Queen (and wanted it back). They wanted Catholicism restored in England (and felt that ordinary Catholics would support it). Elizabeth was refusing to marry or to name an heir, causing uncertainty about England’s future. Mary Queen of Scots (if freed from prison) could replace Elizabeth and solve all these problems Who were the key players in the Revolt? Earl of Northumberland • A Catholic who had held an important position under Mary I. • He lost a lot of influence under Elizabeth (as she favoured Protestant gentry) • Elizabeth also took the rights to a valuable copper mine found on his lands Earl of Westmorland • From a rich Catholic family in the north Also the Duke of Norfolk’s brother in law Duke of Norfolk • England’s most senior Protestant noble, but he had very close links to old northern Catholic families, & was sympathetic to them & greedy for power. • He hated William Cecil & Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (Elizabeth’s favourite) who were Protestant and from the gentry • He planned to marry Mary QS, but later backed down and urged the earls to call off the rebellion. Mary also supported the plan to marry him What role did religion play? (7/10 – but only because it was linked to power) • Most northerners held onto their Catholic beliefs & although Elizabeth didn’t persecute them, they knew that she wanted their religion to gradually die out, so they supported the revolt. • In 1561 Elizabeth hired a strict Protestant as archbishop of Durham to promote Protestantism in the north, but he was unpopular & turned many northerners against the Protestant religion. What role did politics/power play? (9/10 – this was the most important cause of the revolt) • The Northern Earls lost a lot of their power/influence (even jobs/money under Elizabeth) • Northumberland was jealous of new Protestant families being given top jobs in the North • William Cecil & Robert Dudley were not from ancient noble families, but were very close to the Queen, so the northern Earls resented them getting top jobs in her Government • Elizabeth also confiscated large areas of land & the profits from their copper mines • It is possible, that had Elizabeth allowed the Catholic Northern Earls to keep their jobs, money and influence at court, they may have ‘tolerated’ her as a Protestant Queen (greedy/selfish). What role did Mary Queen of Scots and the Succession play? • Elizabeth was refusing to name an heir and it was becoming clear that she would not marry • If Mary Queen of Scots married the Duke of Norfolk, England would have an heir and England would be Catholic again. The country would be stable without people competing for power. • However, some of Elizabeth’s courtiers got worried that it might not work and that it might lead to charges of treason (punishable by death) • So by September 1569, Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester) decided to tell Elizabeth about the plot. By this time it was much more serious than simply marrying Norfolk to Mary. • Mary QS had secretly asked Spain to send troops to help the rebellion & overthrow Elizabeth Plan for the Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569) • The Earls of Northumberland & Westmorland will raise rebel troops from their lands in the north and take control of Durham. • The rebels will then march south towards London to join with the Duke of Norfolk • 1000s of Spanish troops will land in England to support the rebel forces • The Duke of Norfolk & rebel forces will seize control of Government & overthrow Elizabeth • Mary Queen of Scots is to be freed, ready to marry the Duke of Norfolk Key Events of the Revolt • Once Elizabeth knew of the plot, Norfolk was arrested and sent to the Tower of London • The Northern Earls were worried they would be executed for their involvement and in a desperate attempt to avoid punishment, pushed ahead with the revolt • They raised an army of ordinary Catholics and took control of Durham cathedral • Catholic mass was celebrated across the north for 2 weeks. • They then headed south, to try and free Mary • Mary QSs was moved south to Coventry on the orders of Elizabeth, so she couldn’t escape • The rebellion failed as Spanish troops never arrived • Elizabeth’s friend (Earl of Sussex) had raised an army of 7,000 men to defend her throne. Results: • The rebellion was a serious threat to Elizabeth • She executed 450 rebels in the north • Northumberland was executed in 1572 & his head was put on a spike on the city gate • The Privy Council called for the Duke of Norfolk’s execution too, but Elizabeth released him. • Mary Queen of Scots was kept in prison for the next 14 years. • The failed plot also led the Pope to take action against Elizabeth • In 1570 he excommunicated Elizabeth from the Catholic Church • He also issued a Papal Bull (order) calling on all loyal Catholics to overthrow her hoping it would encourage another rebellion. • In 1571 Elizabeth called parliament to pass an Act making it treason to claim that she was not the rightful Queen and to bring in/print papal bulls in England. The Significance of the Revolt of the Northern Earls • It was the first and most serious rebellion by English Catholics against Elizabeth • Treason laws were made much harsher • It ended the influence of the powerful Catholic Earls in the North • It led to harsher treatment of Catholics, e.g. 1572 Elizabeth sent the Earl of Huntingdon (strict Protestant) to the north to carry out laws against Catholics (and suppress Catholicism). • Although Elizabeth’s brutal revenge on the rebels show how serious a threat it was, most Catholics in the north stayed loyal, but the Pope’s Papal Bull now put their loyalty in doubt There was little support for the revolt among the rest of the Catholic nobility and ordinary people. When faced with a choice between Elizabeth and their religion, most Catholics chose to support the Queen. 1569, was the last time English Catholics tried to remove Elizabeth by force. The future plots against her were always uncovered by Cecil & Walsingham, before they had a chance to get any public support. Despite this, the Northern Revolt & Papal Bull changed Elizabeth’s attitude towards Catholics who were now seen as potential traitors. From 1570, Elizabeth became less tolerant of recusants (people refusing to attend her church) & took increasingly tough measures against Catholics. The Ridolfi, Throckmorton & Babington plots • In the 1870s-80s, there were 3 Catholic plots to assassinate Elizabeth & replace her with Mary. • The plots were supported by France, Spain, the Pope and some Catholic nobles. • They reinforced the form Mary & from Catholics at home and abroad. Also the threat from Spain. The Ridolfi Plot (1571) • Ridolfi was an Italian banker living in England and a spy for the Pope. • He organised a plot to murder Eliz, marry Mary QS to the Duke of Norfolk & make her Queen. • The Pope & King Philip supported the plot & Philip told the Duke of Alba in the Netherlands to prepare 10,000 troops (but to only invade AFTER the English had overthrown Elizabeth). • The plot failed because Sir William Cecil intercepted coded letters & Norfolk was executed. • Mary was kept under closer watch. • Ridolfi was abroad when the plot was discovered and never returned to England. 1574: Catholic Priests and Priest Holes • From 1574 Catholic priests were smuggled into England to keep the religion alive. • They stayed with rich Catholic families, so Catholic families were kept under surveillance. • Catholic homes were raided – to find ‘priest holes’ where Catholic priests were hiding. • Catholic priests who were found could be hung, drawn and quartered (although not all were) • In 1581, Parliament also passed 2 new tougher laws against Catholics: • Recusants would be fined £20 (which would bankrupt most families) • Trying to convert people to Catholicism was now treason (punishable by death) The Throckmorton Plot (1583) • It aimed to assassinate Elizabeth and replace her with Mary. The French Duke of Guise (Mary’s cousin) would invade England with an army, funded by King Philip (Pope also supported it). • An Englishman, Throckmorton carried messages between Mary & Catholic plotters abroad. • Sir Walsingham (Secretary of State) uncovered the plot after his agents found the plans for the plot in Throckmorton’s house. Throckmorton confessed under torture and was executed. Significance: • The plots showed that Mary’s presence in England posed a serious threat • It also showed that France & Spain were a serious threat (& could invade) • Throckmorton’s papers showed a list of Catholic supporters in England, so the threat from English Catholics was also real • 1,000s of Catholics were imprisoned or kept under surveillance/house arrest • In 1585 another Act was passed to make helping Catholic priests punishable by death. • The Bond of Association was signed by the English nobles & gentry & forced them to promise to execute anyone who tried to overthrow the Queen. Weaknesses of the Plots The plots lacked public support & were uncovered by informers & spies before they had the chance to work King Philip was reluctant to destroy his alliance with Elizabeth (France was still a bigger rival) so is support for the plots was half-hearted, he rarely followed through on his promises to help the plotters or send an army The Babington Plot (1586) In 1586, Walsingham used his spy network to PROVE that Mary supported the Babington plot. His evidence persuaded Elizabeth to put Mary on trial & execute her for treason. • This was a plot to murder Elizabeth and put Mary on the throne • France would invade England with 60,000 men and Spain would also send an army • Babington was passing coded letters between Mary & her supporters in England & Europe. • But all of her letters were being intercepted and read by Walsingham. • Walsingham used his spies to follow every stage of the plot & had the letters decoded • One of Mary’s letters approved plans to murder the Queen and free Mary from prison • They also contained the names of 6 Catholics who planned to kill Elizabeth • They were arrested, hung, drawn and quartered for treason. • Mary had been implicated in plots before, but Elizabeth was always reluctant to execute her • But the proof found by Walsingham finally persuaded her to put Mary on trial • In October 1586, Mary was found guilty & was sentenced to death • But Elizabeth still hesitated, and did not sign the death warrant until February 1587. Significance 1) This plot was very significant because by 1585 England was effectively at war with Spain since Elizabeth had sent her army to help the Dutch Protestants fight the Spanish 2) This meant that Elizabeth’ situation was more dangerous than during previous plots. 3) Elizabeth’s government also became more determined to crush Catholicism 4) 1000s of recusants were arrested & 31 priests were executed 5) Mary’s execution removed the Catholic threat at home 6) English Catholics had no one to rally around, & lost hope of overthrowing Elizabeth 7) But Mary’s death increased the threat of a foreign invasion as England was at war with Spain and King Philip had been preparing an attack on England since 1585 8) Mary’s death made Philip even more determined to invade, Mary had left her claim to the English throne to King Philip upon her death Why was Mary Queen of Scots finally executed? 1 • A new Act in 1585 stated that in the event of Elizabeth’s assassination, Mary could be executed as long as she had been proved guilty & Walsingham had provided hard proof. 2 • Another reason was that by 1587, it was clear that Philip was planning to invade England • There were rumours that Spanish ships had landed in Wales & that Mary had escaped. This convinced Elizabeth that Mary had to be executed if she wanted to keep her throne. Walsingham’s Spy Network: • Walsingham (Secretary of State from 1573) had a network of spies all over England & abroad. He had spies in every English town, some were normal people paid to spy on neighbours. • He also had agents and spies in Spain, France, Germany and Italy • He hired mathematicians to crack written codes and people to open/seal letters secretly • He also pressured captured Catholic priests to spy on others for him in return for a pardon. • He used double agents to infiltrate Catholic networks - to help him discover traitors • But he only used torture against Catholic priests caught in England in the most serious cases • But 130 priests and 60 of their supporters were still executed during Elizabeth’s reign. Why did Relations with Spain get worse (1569-1588) • England had tried to stay on good terms with Spain, because Eliz wanted to avoid an expensive war that could lead to her being overthrown (English Catholics could support it) • But by the 1570s, Elizabeth wanted to have an empire of her own. • She also needed to make more money to defend her country and throne (by improving trade) • This religious, political and economic rivalry led to growing tensions between England & Spain Political and Religious Rivalry 1) Land abroad, gave countries wealth/power. By the 1580s, Eliz wanted an empire to rival Spain’s (especially as Spain had supported the Catholic plots against Eliz – even if it was half-hearted) 2) Religion was another cause of conflict. Philip opposed Elizabeth’s religious settlement 1559 3) Luckily for Elizabeth, in the 1550s Spain & France were competing to be the greatest European power and both wanted England as an ally against the other. 4) But from 1567, Spanish ships were sailing to the Netherlands with money for the Alba’s army 5) This alarmed English Protestants and Elizabeth’s Privy Council who put more and more pressure on her to send an army to help the Dutch Protestant rebels (in the Netherlands). Economic (commercial) Rivalry: The New World, privateers and Sir Francis Drake • Under Elizabeth, English merchants wanted to make big profits in the New World (Americas). • However, trading in the New World was difficult because of Spain’s power 1) Spain controlled most of the New World where there were huge profits to be made and anyone who wanted to trade there needed a licence from Spain (which it would not give): 2) But the Americas had valuable crops like tobacco, sugar, and also silver and gold 3) Elizabeth secretly encouraged privateers to trade illegally & raid Spanish ports & ships 4) At first Elizabeth denied responsibility for their actions, which delaye war with Spain Sir Francis Drake: Elizabeth sends Drake to rob Spanish colonies and ships (which infuriates Spain) 1) Spain’s support for the Ridolfi plot (1571) made her more willing to support Drake • In 1572 Eliz hired Drake to sail to the New World & steal £40,000 of Spanish silver • In 1577 she sent Drake back again with a secret mission to rob Spain’s colonies/ships • Drake brought back £400,000 of Spanish treasure & claimed an area of California in Elizabeth’s name (New Albion). He gave a lot of this money to Elizabeth • He boosted England’s finances at a time of growing concern over Spain’s threat • He became famous as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. • Eliz knighted Drake as a reward, which infuriated Philip (as he saw Drake as a pirate) • Drake’s actions & his claim to California made it clear that England did not accept Spain’s domination of the New World. Elizabeth’s Support for the Dutch Rebels led to War with Spain (1585-88) • By the 1580s, tension between England & Spain had reached boiling point • At first, Eliz refused to send her army to help the Dutch rebels, because she wanted to avoid a war with Spain. So she tried to get the Spanish to leave the Netherlands in other INDIRECT ways: 1) By allowing Drake (& other English privateers) to attack and rob Spanish ships and colonies 2) By encouraging others (the French heir/mercenaries) to fight the Spanish in the Netherlands • In the 1570s, Elizabeth promised to marry the heir to the French throne (the Duke of Alencon) so that he would take an army to fight the Spanish in the Netherlands The Spanish Fury (1576) and the Pacification of Ghent (1576) • By 1576, the Spanish Govt in the Netherlands was bankrupt (the war was expensive) • After months without pay, Spain’s soldiers violently robbed Dutch towns in the “Spanish Fury” Spanish troops rebelling and robbing cities in the Netherlands in 1576. This united the Dutch Protestants & Catholics against Spain. They drew up the ‘Pacification of Ghent’ (demanding that): • Spanish troops leave the Netherlands • Spain allows the Dutch to rule themselves • The persecution of Dutch Protestants stops What did Elizabeth do? • Elizabeth sent £100,000 to help the Dutch rebels • In 1577 King Philip’s brother, Don Juan agreed to the rebels demands (but this was a trick) as just 6 months later Philip sent an even bigger army to attack the Dutch. • Elizabeth then hired a mercenary army of 6000 English & Scottish volunteers to help the Dutch. • But her plan backfired because the mercenaries destroyed Dutch Catholic churches, which caused the Catholics to make peace with Spain. • In 1578, her Privy Council urged Eliz to send her official army to help the Dutch, but she refused. The Dutch were disappointed & turned to France for help. The French Duke of Alencon arrived with an army to fight the Spanish, but by 1579 Spain had taken control again. • In 1580 Spain got even stronger after Philip won control of Portugal & its empire. • So Elizabeth gave the Duke of Alencon £70,000 to help him fight the Spanish • In 1582, Alencon took his army the Netherlands but failed to defeat Spain. • Elizabeth’s foreign policy in the Netherlands had failed & she had only managed to annoy Spain 1585: Why did Eliz finally decide to send her army to the Netherlands? (she lost her 2 main allies) • 1584 the Duke of Alencon died (so he could no longer fight the Spanish in the Netherlands) • 1 month later, William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch Protestant rebels was assassinated. • In 1585, Spain signed the Treaty of Joinville with France, agreeing to stamp out Protestantism in France/Europe meaning France & Spain were now allies against Protestantism • Elizabeth now felt she had no choice but to send her official army to the Netherlands • She signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch rebels which promised them military help 1585: Robert Dudley’s campaign in the Netherlands was unsuccessful She sent 7,400 man army to the Netherlands led by Dudley. But he accepted the title of ‘Governor General’. Eliz was angry as it suggested that she had deposed King Philip so she told Dudley to resign this position. His army was defeated by the bigger Spanish Army as Eliz had not provided him with enough money to win. In 1587 Dudley resigned and returned to England. At the same time, Eliz had sent Drake to raid Spanish colonies in the New World to disrupt King Philip’s flow of money. Philip was furious and told the Pope he planned to invade England at the end of 1585. Drake singes the King of Spain’s beard 1587 • In 1587 Elizabeth ordered Drake to attack Spain’s most important port Cadiz • He destroyed 30 ships in 3 days – known as the ‘Singeing of the King of Spain’s Beard’ • He also stole lots of wood, meaning the Armada did not have quality barrels for food/water • Drake’s disruption delayed the Armada by a year (& meant that its food rotted in 1588). • This bought England more time to prepare for war. The Spanish Armada (1588) The Plan • By 1588, the Spanish Armada was ready to invade England • It had 130 ships with 8000 sailors & 18,000 soldiers • The Duke of Medina Sidonia would lead the Armada, but he had little experience at sea and didn’t want the job • The Armada would collect Parma’s army from France & sail to England under the protection of the Armada’s warships • Parma would march to London to depose Elizabeth & impose a Catholic government in England. 1) The Armada reached the English Channel The Armada set out in May 1588, but was delayed for a few weeks by bad weather In July the Armada was near England & signal fires were lit to warn Elizabeth English ships set sail to meet the Armada The Armada sailed up the channel in a crescent (half moon) formation, to use the large armed galleons to protect the weaker supply and army ships The English navy carried out a few minor raids, but did not inflict much damage Only 2 Spanish ships were lost (by accident) 2) The English attack the Spanish at Calais (with fire ships) and at Gravelines The Armada sailed up the English channel & anchored at Calais to wait for Parma’s army But Parma’s men didn't reach the coast in time (news had reached them too late) At midnight, the English sent 8 fireships into the Spanish ships causing panic They cut their anchors, broke formation & headed for the open sea (without Parma) The Spanish ships sailed to Gravelines, but bad weather stopped them returning to Calais The English attacked and the battle lasted many hours (5 Spanish ships were sunk) The rest were forced to sail away from France towards Scotland The English ships followed them to make sure they didn’t come back to collect Parma’s army 3) The Armada’s Journey back to Spain around Ireland was a disaster The Spanish called off the attack and returned to Spain around Scotland & Ireland Bad storms sank many ships and wrecked more on the Irish coast Many sailors died from starvation & disease – less than half the men made it back to Spain How did England defeat the Spanish Armada? !) Faster Ships • Years before the battle, England had started building smaller, faster ships (galleons) that could fire canon balls quicker & further than Spanish ships • Spanish ships were huge and slow to change direction. 2) Bad Planning & Communication (Spanish) • Philip’s plan to join with the Duke of Parma’s army in France was risky. • Parma had lots of small ships which took 48 hours to load, man and set sail. • It took too long (a week) for word to reach Parma that Medina was in the English Channel, by which time Medina had set sail to Calais. • Parma was not ready to set sail & the English were already ready to attack (leaving Medina with very little back up when anchored in France). 2) English Tactics were more effective • Spanish ships aimed to come alongside the English ones, jump on board & fight the enemy. But the English ships were faster & kept a safe distance. • They chased the Armada down the Channel, with heavy cannon fire, which forced the Spanish to arrive in France before Parma’s army was ready • As the Armada was waiting, the English sent fireships into the Spanish fleet. • This caused the Armada to panic, cut their anchors & sail away to the north • When the Spanish ships regrouped, the English attacked them in the Battle of Gravelines & the Armada was forced to sail north, chased by faster ships. 5) Bad Weather • Strong winds made it impossible for the Armada to return & pick up Parma’s army and storms wrecked or sunk Spanish ships as they tried to return home along the Scottish-Irish coasts. 2) Spanish Supplies • The Armada was not well supplied with food/weapons. Drake’s attack on Cadiz port in 1587 had destroyed food barrels. Delays in setting sail meant that by the time the English attacked the Armada it had been at sea for 10 weeks and had rotting food. 1000s died from starvation/disease. The consequences of the English victory? • Victory over the Spanish Armada gave Elizabeth a great propaganda victory • A new portrait was made, and a medal was made to commemorate her victory, it said “God blew and they were scattered”. • Elizabeth claimed that God was on the side of Protestantism • This led to a feeling of English pride and encouraged the Dutch rebels to renew their fight against the Spanish • The defeat of the Armada showed the strength of the English navy and gave England the confidence to trade and explore more widely at sea • Although Philip did not give up and continued the war for the rest of Elizabeth’s reign, the defeat had cost Spain dearly, both financially and in terms of its power • The Armada marked the start of a long decline in Spain’s power and fortunes. • English ships were sent on voyages of discovery and set up valuable new trade routes • By the end of Elizabeth’s reign, the navy was also trying to set up a new colony in Virginia • The English victory boosted Elizabeth’s popularity & strengthened the Protestant causeThe speaker is talking about how great the United States is and how it has a special role in the world. They believe that the country has been given a noble land by God, and its people are strong and important. They talk about the country's history of brave soldiers who have fought in difficult places. The speaker responds to those who say that governing people without their consent is wrong. They argue that the idea of consent only applies to people who can govern themselves, and they give examples like how the U.S. governs Native Americans, its territories, and even children without their consent. They also say that if other countries like England and Germany can govern foreign lands, the United States can do it too. They believe that this will bring more opportunities for young men in the country and increase resources and trade. They mention specific examples of the potential wealth in Cuba, such as unexplored forests and mines. The speaker believes that as the United States expands its influence and trade, it will spread the idea of liberty and civilization to other parts of the world. They think that the United States is chosen by God and has a special mission.