In counting rhythms, what does the term 'eight note' refer to?

A note that lasts for half a beat

A note that lasts for a whole beat

A note that lasts for a quarter of a beat

A note that lasts for two beats

What is the primary purpose of counting rhythms in music?

To keep track of the beat and timing

What is the effect of a triplet in counting rhythms?

Divides a beat into three equal parts

Converts a note to double its value

Increases the tempo of the music

How to count rhythms

How to Count Rhythms - Practice

To understand melody in music, think about some music you’re familiar with. If you were asked to hum it, what would that sound like? The part of the music that you’d hum is the melody. It’s the main thread of sound that your brain tracks and holds onto when you’re listening to music. In vocal music, the melody is sung by the lead singer. Other vocalists can provide harmony and instruments can add accompaniment, but the melody is the star of the show.What are the characteristics of melody in music? How do you describe a melody in music? A melody needs to have two things. The first is a sequence of notes, or pitches, which range from high to low. The second is rhythm, which is the timing and duration of each note. These two simple elements can create an incredible variety of combinations. Even though a melody only consists of one note at a time, it can convey so much energy and emotion. Melodies can be fast and sparkly, like “The Flight of the Bumblebee.” They can be slow and majestic, like “Finlandia.” They might be sweeping and graceful, like a Strauss waltz. Or they can be fun and exciting, like your favorite pop tunes that you love to sing along with. Melodies often tell you a lot about where a piece of music comes from. It’s easy to recognize and identify melodies from different folk traditions such as the Japanese folk song “Sakura” or the Irish tune “Star of the County Down.” Learn how to play your favorite melodies on piano, and more! Sign up now. What is melody in music? Here are some examples. Here is the famous melody for the song “Lean on Me” written out on a staff. Notice the way that the notes move up, down, and then repeat. What is melody in music? Example of Lean On Me notes on treble staff. A melody all by itself is great, but music can be even more fun when there’s an accompaniment. Here are a few bars of “Lean on Me” with the accompaniment written out. As you listen to this song, notice how the accompaniment has a very similar rhythm and movement to the melody. Then there’s that one note in the bass line that comes along every measure with its own rhythm, which adds some extra energy and movement to the song. What makes a good melody? When you create a melody, there are four types of movement you can use: Repeat (same note) Step (up or down) Skip (up or down) Leap (up or down) Stepping and repeating are the most common types of melodic motion, and this makes a melody easier to sing. Most “hummable” tunes use steps and repeats almost exclusively. This kind of melody is called conjunct. Beethoven’s “Ode to Joy,” one of the most famous melodies of all time.Skips and leaps are generally more sparing in melodies, but when thoughtfully placed they can have a powerful emotional impact. Tunes with a lot of leaps are called disjunct. Listen to Sarah Brightman sing All I Ask of You from The Phantom of the Opera starting at 0:39. This is a very disjunct melody, and challenging to sing. Great melodies also incorporate patterns that blend unity, repetition, and contrast. Our ears love patterns, but they also love novelty and growth. A good melody incorporates all of these elements. For example, listen to John William’s “Princess Leia Theme.” Can you hear the repeated pattern in the melody that gradually moves higher as the theme progresses? Now listen to the way it changes and develops into something that fits with what came before but sounds new at the same time. This is some great melodic writing! Can melody exist without rhythm? There is no way for a melody to exist without rhythm. Even if your melody only has one note, that note has a duration, and that’s the rhythm. If your melody has two notes, how long those notes last and how much time passes between hearing them is also a rhythm. A melody in music can often be recognized even when it’s performed with different rhythms. This frequently happens in live performances of pop, rock, and jazz, in which singers typically improvise slight rhythmic differences with each performance. No two renditions are exactly the same, and this constant reinterpretation keeps the music fresh. How to make a melody for a song on piano Creating your own melodies on the piano is easy and fun! There are so many ways you can discover a melody all your own. Here are a few ideas. Get some inspiration from the world around you. What can you hear right now? A clock ticking? A bird song? A car passing by your house? See if you can find some notes on the piano that imitate the sounds you hear. Think of a feeling you’d like to put into a melody. What are some ways you could make a string of notes sound happy, sad, angry, or maybe just thoughtful. Choose a line from a poem you like, or write your own. Read it out loud and put some feeling into it. Did your voice rise and fall in pitch as you were reading? Now go to the piano, start on any note you like, and try to imitate what happened when you read. Go up when your voice naturally went up, go down when your voice naturally went down. How did that sound? Now you have the perfect melody to go with those words. Too many keys on the piano? The truth is, most melodies use only a limited number of different notes. Try creating a melody using only the black keys. These form what’s called a pentatonic scale. It’s used in a lot of folk music traditions around the world and can be a great place to start if you want to create your own melodies. Remember, when you create your melody, keep it simple. Use repeated notes and steps, but add a few skips to keep things interesting. One tip about leaps: when you do put in a big leap, try doubling back and filling in the empty space you leaped over. This keeps the melody self-contained and easier to sing. Also, see if you can use the same patterns of notes and rhythms to give the melody unity, but also change those patterns to give it variety. There is no right or wrong way to create your own music. Keep trying combinations of notes and rhythms until you find something that you like. How many bars and notes are in a melody? Many types of music tend to have a prescribed number of bars, or measures. This will vary widely between different genres, and creates an overall sense of musical structure. If you’re writing a pop song, a verse will usually have between eight and sixteen bars. The prechorus that follows often has just four bars, and this “foreshortening” creates a sense of acceleration, driving the listener toward the chorus. The number of notes can also vary widely. A melody in music needs at least two notes, and a long and complex one can have hundreds or even thousands of notes. What is a countermelody in music? How many melodies should a song have? A counter melody is a melodic line that interacts with the primary melody as an independent but supportive voice. A great example of this is the song “We Don’t Talk about Bruno.” Each character sings their own melody during the piece, but these melodies all combine at the end as countermelodies. This produces a musical texture known as counterpoint. The same thing happens in “One Day More” from Les Miserables. The different melodies are first sung separately, but end up being combined in a splendid, complex texture that leads the music to its thrilling conclusion. The difference between a countermelody and regular harmony is that harmony usually supports the rhythms of the melody. A countermelody will move more independently, with different rhythms from those of the melody, and will often sound “melodic” when sung or played all by itself. A melodic song should have one main melody. This is the part that the lead voice sings. It’s usually in the spotlight, and will be the most memorable part of the music. Anything else is either harmony, countermelody, or accompaniment. Does all music have to have a melody? A piece of music doesn’t have to have a melody. There are many different kinds of music without melody. For example, a lot of music played on percussion instruments won’t have a melody. Listen to this example of Tahitian drumming. This is some great music, exciting and fun to listen to, but you’d have a hard time humming it. It’s music, but it doesn’t have a melody. Rap music is another style of music where there doesn’t have to be a melody. In rap, words are chanted rather than sung. The performer will raise and lower the pitch of their voice for emphasis, but it’s the rhythm of the words that creates most of the music. Music can even lack any melody, at least in some sections. Listen to the opening chords of “Duel of the Fates.” This choral passage is all about harmony, with little rhythmic variance or sense of melody. But it makes an effective contrast with the next section, which is bustling with rapid instrumental melodies. In some pieces, there are multiple melodic lines but there is no one main melody. When music is made up of equally important countermelodies, it creates a contrapuntal texture. Baroque composer J.S. Bach was one of the greatest masters of this style, such as in his Little Fugue in G minor. It starts with a single melodic line, the subject, but then a countermelody is added, and then more and more until several melodic lines are playing together. It’s fun to listen to, but once all the countermelodies are playing together it becomes hard to decide which part to hum along with! You’ll also hear a lot of counterpoint in jazz music, in which the different instruments are all playing together and improvising their own melodies that combine to create a rich, thick musical texture. Experience the wonder of melody in music! Whether you’re humming your favorite tune, or creating a new song all your own, melody is a memorable, shareable part of music. Enrich your music experience by being aware of, listening for, and enjoying the melodies all around you.

How to count centuries using BC and AD

Number Twelve Number Twelve Is Everywhere! We use the number twelve to help us do things every day. It helps us to count things, measure length, and tell time. Did you ever wonder why a year has twelve months? A ruler has twelve inches? A clock has twelve hours? How We Learned to Count. Long ago, people needed an easy way to count things. How many goats did they have? How many bricks did they need? They didn't have pencils, but they always had their fingers. How could their fingers help them count things? Your hand has four fingers and one thumb. Fingers bend into three parts. All of your finger parts add up to-twelve! To learn how people counted, use the thumb of your other hand. Count the parts of each finger. One, two, three, four, five, six. Using their fingers, people could count their farm animals. They might count six chickens, three sheep, and three goats. They had twelve animals! When their animals had babies, it was easy to count them, too. Using both hands, people could count to twenty-four. Twenty-four is two twelves! A Ruler Is Twelve Thumbs Long Fingers, and the number twelve, were also used to find length. An inch was the width of an adult man's thumb. A foot was twelve thumbs long. Soon, people cut twelve marks for thumb widths on a stick. It was easy to carry the stick. That stick was the first kind of twelve-inch ruler! Twelve Hours in a Day People used the number twelve to divide their days into parts, or hours, that they could count. In daylight, they watched the shadow of a stick or a sundial to know what hour it was. Twelve things are also called a dozen. We buy a dozen pencils in a box. We buy a dozen doughnuts or a dozen eggs. The number twelve helps us to do a dozen things every day!

The Pleiades, also known as the Seven Sisters, is a famous star cluster located in the constellation of Taurus. It is made up of a group of seven bright stars that are visible to the naked eye in the night sky. The stars in the Pleiades cluster are relatively young, being only about 100 million years old, which is young in astronomical terms. The Pleiades cluster has been observed and admired by cultures all around the world for thousands of years. In Greek mythology, the Pleiades were seven sisters who were pursued by the hunter Orion. To protect them, Zeus transformed them into stars, forming the star cluster we see today. Different cultures have their own stories and legends associated with the Pleiades, making it a fascinating object of study for astronomers and a source of inspiration for artists and storytellers. The Pleiades cluster is often used as a test of eyesight, as people are challenged to count how many stars they can see with the naked eye. Most people can see six or seven stars, but those with particularly sharp vision may be able to see more. The Pleiades is also a popular target for amateur astronomers with telescopes, as the cluster reveals even more stars and details when viewed through a telescope. In addition to being a beautiful sight in the night sky, the Pleiades cluster also serves a practical purpose for astronomers. By studying the stars in the Pleiades, scientists can learn more about how stars form and evolve, as well as gain insights into the structure and composition of the Milky Way galaxy. The Pleiades cluster continues to be an important object of study for astronomers, both amateur and professional, and its beauty and significance will continue to capture the imaginations of people for generations to come. Matariki is the Maori name for the Pleiades star cluster. The Pleiades is a group of stars that can be seen in the night sky, and Matariki is a special time of year when the star cluster is visible in the sky. In Maori culture, Matariki is seen as the beginning of the Maori New Year, and it is a time to celebrate and give thanks for the past year and look forward to the year ahead. So basically, Matariki is related to the Pleiades because it is a special time of year when those stars are visible in the sky and it has cultural significance for the Maori people. The Pleiades star cluster is known by different names in various cultures around the world. Here are some of the names by which the Pleiades are referred to in different countries: 1. Maori culture in New Zealand and Polynesia: Matariki 2. Greek mythology: The Seven Sisters 3. Japan: Subaru 4. Native American tribes: The Dancers or The Little Eyes 5. Inca civilization: Collca 6. Ancient Persia: Parvin 7. India: Krittika 8. Aboriginal Australians: The Seven Sisters or Djulpan These different names reflect the diverse cultural significance and interpretations of the Pleiades cluster in various societies throughout history.

Section 1: Numbers, Operations, and Relationships (15 marks) 1. Number Concepts (5 marks) 1.1. Decompose the following numbers into tens and ones: (2 marks) a. 34 b. 67 1.2. Count the objects in the pictures below and write the total number: (3 marks) [This section would need images of objects. You can provide images of groups of objects, e.g., 3 groups of 4 apples each and ask the students to count the total number.] 2. Solve Problems (5 marks) 2.1. Solve the following word problem using drawings: (3 marks) Samantha has 5 baskets. Each basket has 8 apples. How many apples does she have in total? Samantha has 5 × 8 = 40 5×8=40 apples. 2.2. Solve the following word problem by building up and breaking down numbers: (2 marks) There are 4 boxes. Each box has 6 chocolates. How many chocolates are there in total? There are 4 × 6 = 24 4×6=24 chocolates in total. 3. Calculations (5 marks) 3.1. Multiply the following numbers using drawings: (3 marks) a. 5 × 4 = 20 b. 4 × 5 = 20 3.2. Use a number line to solve: (2 marks) a. 3 × 5 = 15 b. 2 × 4 = 8 Section 2: Patterns, Functions, and Algebra (10 marks) 4. Number Patterns (10 marks) 4.1. Complete the number sequences: (5 marks) a. 180, 170, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90 b. 150, 152, 154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 166, 168 4.2. Count in twos and fill in the missing numbers: (5 marks) a. 102, 104, 106, 108, 110, 112, 114, 116 Section 3: Space and Shape (Geometry) (10 marks) 5. Position (10 marks) 5.1. Follow the directions to move around the classroom: (5 marks) Draw a path showing how you would move from your desk to the teacher's table by following these steps: Move 3 steps forward. Turn left and move 2 steps. Turn right and move 4 steps. [Students would draw a path based on these directions.] 5.2. Use the language of position to describe the following: (5 marks) a. The pencil is on the book. b. The chair is beside the desk. c. The bag is under the table. d. The ruler is next to the notebook. e. The eraser is inside the pencil case.

Figure 18-11 represents the amount of energy stored as organic material in each trophic level in an ecosystem. The pyramid shape of the diagram indicates the low percentage of energy transfer from one level to the next. On average, 10 percent of the total energy consumed in one trophic level is incor- porated into the organisms in the next. Why is the percentage of energy transfer so low? One reason is that some of the organisms in a trophic level escape being eaten. They eventually die and become food for decomposers, but the energy contained in their bodies does not pass to a higher trophic level. Even when an organism is eaten, some of the molecules in its body will be in a form that the consumer cannot break down and use. For example, a cougar cannot extract energy from the antlers, hooves, and hair of a deer. Also, the energy used by prey for cellu- lar respiration cannot be used by predators to synthesize new bio- mass. Finally, no transformation or transfer of energy is 100 percent efficient. Every time energy is transformed, such as during the reactions of metabolism, some energy is lost as heat. Limitations of Trophic Levels The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels explains why ecosystems rarely contain more than a few trophic levels. Because only about 10 percent of the energy available at one trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level, there is not enough energy in the top trophic level to support more levels. Organisms at the lowest trophic level are usually much more abundant than organisms at the highest level. In Africa, for exam- ple, you will see about 1,000 zebras, gazelles, and other herbivores for every lion or leopard you see, and there are far more grasses and shrubs than there are herbivores. Higher trophic levels con- tain less energy, so, they can support fewer individuals.A population is a group of organisms that belong to the same species and live in a particular place at the same time. All of the bass living in a pond during a certain period of time make up a pop- ulation because they are isolated in the pond and do not interact with bass living in other ponds. The boundaries of a population may be imposed by a feature of the environment, such as a lake shore, or they can be arbitrarily chosen to simplify a study of the population. The humans shown in Figure 19-1 are part of the pop- ulation of a city. The properties of populations differ from those of individuals. An individual may be born, it may reproduce, or it may die. A population study focuses on a population as a whole—how many individuals are born, how many die, and so on. Population Size A population’s size is the number of individuals that the population contains. Size is a fundamental and important population property but can be difficult to measure directly. If a population is small and composed of immobile organisms, such as plants, its size can be determined simply by counting individuals. Often, though, individ- uals are too abundant, too widespread, or too mobile to be counted easily, and scientists must estimate the number of individuals in the population. Suppose that a scientist wants to know how many oak trees live in a 10 km2 patch of forest. Instead of searching the entire patch of forest and counting all the oak trees, the scientist could count the trees in a smaller section of the forest, such as a 1 km2 area. The scientist could then use this value to estimate the population of the larger area. SECTION 1 OBJECTIVES ● Describe the main properties that scientists measure when they study populations. ● Compare the three general patterns of population dispersion. ● Identify the measurements used to describe changing populations. ● Compare the three general types of survivorship curves. VOCABULARY population population density dispersion birth rate death rate life expectancy age structure survivorship curve FIGURE 19-1 A population can be widely distributed, as Earth’s human population is, or confined to a small area, as species of fish in a lake are. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 382 CHAPTER 19 If the small patch contains 25 oaks, an area 10 times larger would likely contain 10 times as many oak trees. A similar kind of sampling technique might be used to estimate the size of the pop- ulation shown in Figure 19-2. To use this kind of estimate, the sci- entist must assume that the distribution of individuals in the entire population is the same as that in the sampled group. Estimates of population size are based on many such assumptions, so all esti- mates have the potential for error. Population Density Population density measures how crowded a population is. This measurement is always expressed as the number of individuals per unit of area or volume. For example, the population density of humans in the United States is about 30 people per square kilome- ter. Table 19-1 shows the population sizes and densities of humans in several countries in 2003. These estimates are calculated for the total land area. Some areas of a country may be sparsely popu- lated, while other areas are very densely populated. Dispersion A third population property is dispersion (di-SPUHR-zhuhn). Dispersion is the spatial distribution of individuals within the popu- lation. In a clumped distribution, individuals are clustered together. In a uniform distribution, individuals are separated by a fairly con- sistent distance. In a random distribution, each individual’s location is independent of the locations of other individuals in the popula- tion. Figure 19-3 illustrates the three possible patterns of dispersion. Clumped distributions often occur when resources such as food or living space are clumped. Clumped distributions may also occur because of a species’ social behavior, such as when animals gather into herds or flocks. Uniform distributions may result from social behavior in which individuals within the same habitat stay as far away from each other as possible. For example, a bird may locate its nest so as to maximize the distance from the nests of other birds. These migrating wildebeests in East Africa are too numerous and mobile to be counted. Scientists must use sampling methods at several locations to monitor changes in the population size of the animals. FIGURE 19-2 TABLE 19-1 Population Size and Density of Some Countries Population size Population density Country (in millions) (in individuals/km2) China 1,289 135 India 1,069 325 United States 292 30 Russia 146 8 Japan 128 337 Mexico 105 54 Kenya 32 54 Australia 20 3 dispersion from the Latin dis-, meaning “out,” and spargere, meaning “to scatter” Word Roots and Origins Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. POPULATIONS 383 The social interactions of birds called gannets, which are shown in Figure 19-3b, result in a uniform distribution. Each gannet chooses a small nesting area on the coast and defends it from other gannets. In this way, each gannet tries to maximize its distance from all of its neighbors, which causes a uniform distribution of individuals. Few populations are truly randomly dispersed. Rather, they show degrees of clumping or uniformity. The dispersion pattern of a population sometimes depends on the scale at which the popu- lation is observed. The gannets shown in Figure 19-3b are uni- formly distributed on a scale of a few meters. However, if the entire island on which the gannets live is observed, the distribution appears clumped because the birds live only near the shore. POPULATION DYNAMICS All populations are dynamic—they change in size and composition over time. To understand these changes, scientists must know more than the population’s size, density, and dispersion. One important measure is the birth rate, the number of births occur- ring in a period of time. In the United States, for example, there are about 4 million births per year. A second important measure is the death rate, or mortality rate, which is the number of deaths in a

Do you want to play a game, Timmy? Yes, I do. OK, let’s count the people on photos. How many women are there? There is one woman. Correct! How many men are there? There is one man. Wrong! There are two men. Who are they? They are four children. They are my friends. Good job, Timmy!

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