I like vs. I don't like

Create a comprehension quiz for the following vocabulary; To be getting on in age: Growing older; advancing in years. Pet peeve: Something that annoys or bothers someone significantly. Pinhead: A small-minded or foolish person. Nit-pick: To find fault with small or trivial details. Whilst/while: During the time that; at the same time as. On a dig: Engaged in archaeological excavation. Mad vs crazy: "Mad" typically refers to anger or insanity, while "crazy" can denote insanity or extreme enthusiasm. Twitch: A sudden, quick movement or spasm. Dreamt/dreamed: Past tense forms of the verb "to dream." Eaves: The part of a roof that overhangs the walls. Burly man: A strong, muscular man. She’s a looker: A woman who is attractive or visually appealing. Breech birth: A birth in which the baby is delivered feet first instead of head first. Being too forward: Acting too boldly or presumptuously. Gooey: Soft and sticky, often used to describe certain textures or emotional situations. Spare tire: Excess fat around the waistline; a protruding belly. Twists and turns of fate: Unexpected changes or developments in life. Pompous: Self-important or arrogant. Play a prank on someone: To carry out a mischievous trick or joke on someone. Scamps: Mischievous or playful individuals, often used affectionately. To tend one's resignation: To formally submit one's resignation from a job. A sound judgment: A wise or rational decision. To set someone up with someone else: To arrange a meeting or date between two people. Loon: A colloquial term for a crazy or eccentric person. Duvet: A type of blanket filled with feathers, down, or synthetic fibers, used as a bed covering. Don't Meddle: Do not interfere or intervene. Croquet mallet: A hammer-like instrument used to strike croquet balls. Cut it out: Stop doing something annoying or inappropriate. Pop over: Visit briefly or unexpectedly. It was a riot: It was extremely funny or enjoyable. Spit Tspat spat: Sounds indicating a quick, spat-out expulsion of saliva. A hoot: Something that is amusing or enjoyable. Overhear: To unintentionally hear what others are saying without their knowledge. You're quite a package: You possess many appealing qualities or attributes. I'm quite a catch: I am an attractive or desirable partner. Limper: A person who walks with a limp. A hanky: A handkerchief, a small piece of cloth carried for personal hygiene or used as a fashion accessory.

Can you create an evaluation using this information PHONETICS VS. PHONOLOGY Whereas phonetics is the study of sounds that occur in language, phonology is the study of how these sounds are organized and how they function in language. It uses the classifications of sounds derived from phonetics to describe and analyze how sounds occur in speech. STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS As linguists began to study sounds in fine detail, they recognized increasingly complex aspects of phonetic organization. For example, the sound /p/ appears in different varieties in English. STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS One of the varieties of /p/ is indicated by [ph]. This sound is produced with an accompanying puff of air called aspiration, as in the words “pill,” and “peace.” Another sound, indicated by [p•], is produced when there is little or no aspiration; this sound occurs in a word like “spill.” A third major variety for the /p/ sound is the unreleased [p– ], which may occur at the end of a word like “stop.” To deal with these variations for the /p/ sound, the structuralists suggested the existence of an abstract unit which they termed a phoneme. STRUCTURALIST PHONEMICS A phoneme was defined by the structuralists as an abstract phonological unit that represents a class of real sounds, termed the allophones of a phoneme. The phoneme /p/ in English, then, is represented by the allophones [ph], [p•], and [p– ]. STRUCTURALISTS: MINIMAL PAIRS How do we know what these abstract units of sound called phonemes are? In order to find the phonemes of a language, the structuralists developed the concept of the minimal pair, defined as any two words that: a) Contain the same number of segments b) Differ in meaning c) Exhibit only one phonetic difference. STRUCTURALISTS: MINIMAL PAIRS In practical terms, phonemes distinguish meanings; and a phoneme can also be defined as the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit of sound. For instance, the words “pin” /pɪn/ and “bin” /bɪn/ mean different things, and the only one difference in these words occurs in the initial sounds. STRUCTURALISTS: MINIMAL PAIRS By using the concept of a minimal pair, we can determine that the three variations of the /p/ sound do not represent three phonemes. Certainly, it is possible to pronounce the word cap with either an aspirated [ph ] or unreleased [p– ]; however, the two forms [kæph ] and [kæp– ] are not a minimal pair, even though they involve different sounds, because they are identical in meaning. STRUCTURALISTS: FREE VARIATION The two forms [kæph ] and [kæp– ] are, therefore, said to exhibit free variation: that is, the pronunciation may vary without signifying a change in meaning. In other words, we may conclude that the unreleased [p– ] and the aspirated [ph ] are not representations of different phonemes in English; they are, in fact, allophones of one phoneme, /p/. STRUCTURALISTS: COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION When phonemes have more than one allophone in a language, the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution. Complementary distribution means that the allophones of a phoneme occur in different phonetic environments (that is, with different sounds surrounding them). TRANSFORMATIONAL- GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY Transformational-generative phonology is a relatively recent development in linguistic theory. Chomsky launched Transformational-Generative Grammar in 1957, but the earliest studies within this framework were largely concerned with syntax. A decade later, the first comprehensive transformational-generative treatment of English phonology appeared: Chomsky and Halle’s The Sound Pattern of English (1968). TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY Transformational-generative phonologists strongly oppose the structuralists’ phonemic level. They replace this level by a series of rules that directly relate underlying representations to observed phonetic representations. The central mechanisms in transformational-generative phonology, then, are underlying representations and phonological rules. PHONOLOGICAL RULES A rule is an operational statement in which some linguistic entity is modified, resulting in a new linguistic entity. Rules may add elements, remove elements, or change elements. By using phonological rules, linguists attempt to demonstrate that there is order in linguistic phenomena and that linguistic patterns are systematic. PHONOLOGICAL DERIVATION A phonological derivation is an operation that begins with an underlying representation and, through the application of a set of specific rules, yields the actual sound the speaker produces. The representation of a phonological rule has the following general appearance. /A/ → [B] / C “A” changes to “B” under condition “C” PHONOLOGICAL RULE – EXAMPLE In most Southern dialects, the word ten is pronounced like the word tin. This is not an isolated fact, for den is pronounced like din and Ben is pronounced like bin, and so on. This very general fact can be represented by the phonological rule: /ɛ/ → [I] / ___ [n] den /dɛn/ → /dIn/ Ben /bɛn/ → /bIn/ ten /tɛn/ → /tIn/ /ɛ/ → [I] / ___ [n] - high - low - tense + front + high - tense + front + sonorant + anterior + coronal - continuant NOTATIONAL DEVICES IN PHONOLOGICAL RULES The statement of phonological rules can be complex, and linguists have developed several notational devices for writing them. Often, the following symbols will be necessary for stating the conditions under which rules apply: # indicates a word boundary + indicates an intraword boundary $ indicates a syllable boundary UNDERLYING REPRESENTATIONS AND RELATED ISSUES The transformational-generative description of phonology relates underlying representations to phonetic representations by rules. This can be represented in a simple example: In English, there are certain pairs of words like sign / signature, and malign / malignant that exhibit a regular alternation in their phonetic representations: [g] is present in the second member of the pairs but absent in the first member. UNDERLYING REPRESENTATIONS AND RELATED ISSUES To explain the relatedness of words such as sign / signature, we could claim that the underlying representation of the segment in all such pairs is /g/ and that a rule operates to delete /g/ before syllable-final nasals. Thus, the rule “/g/ is deleted before syllable-final nasal” would appear formally as: + voice - anterior →∅ ____ [+ nasal] $ - coronal UNDERLYING REPRESENTATIONS AND RELATED ISSUES On the left-hand side of the arrow, we place the features needed to uniquely specify /g/ among the consonants; that is, no other consonant has the features [+ voice], [- anterior], and [- coronal]. The symbols → mean that the sound /g/ changes to nothing or more properly “/g/ is deleted.” The horizontal line following the slash mark refers to the position of /g/ - namely, before a segment that is [+nasal]. Finally, this [+nasal] segment occurs before a syllable boundary, as indicated by $. A less formal way of writing this rule would be: /g/ → / _ [+nasal] $ Notice that this rule also helps describe such alternations as phlegm/phlegmatic and paradigm/paradigmatic. Application Activity: Think of other words in which this rule can be applied. Write the sound segments to prove /g/ is deleted. Another example is the process through which the prefix meaning “not” is added to words. This prefix alternates among the forms /Im/, /In/, and /Iŋ/, depending on the point of articulation of the initial segment of the following word. -If the segment begins in the extreme front part of the mouth (labials), the form is /Im/, as in improper. -If the segment begins in the extreme back part of the mouth (velars), the form is /Iŋ/, as in incomplete. -If the segment begins in the mid-region of the mouth (all other sounds), the form is /In/, as in indecent. *Exceptions:Words beginning with /r/ or /l/. Analyze the Word “in + complete,” for example. /n/ → [ŋ] / __ [k] - continuant - continuant - continuant + sonorant → + sonorant - sonorant + anterior - anterior - strident + coronal - coronal - coronal + tense THE VELAR SOFTENING RULE Still another example of alternation in English is found in pairs of words like “electric / electricity,” in which the segments /k/ and /s/ alternate. /k/ changes to [s] only before non- low, front vowels. THE VELAR SOFTENING RULE /k/ → [s] / __ - continuant + continuant - strident → - sonorant V - anterior + anterior - low - coronal + coronal - back

PHOTOSYNTHESIS LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION 1. Photosystem II (PSII) – Light Absorption & Water Splitting • Light energy (photons) excites electrons in chlorophyll molecules. • These high-energy electrons leave PSII and are passed into the electron transport chain (ETC). • Meanwhile, water molecules are split (photolysis) into: o O₂ (released as a by-product into the atmosphere) o H⁺ ions (protons, which build up inside the thylakoid) o Electrons (e⁻), which replace the ones lost by PSII. 2. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) • Excited electrons move through protein carriers embedded in the thylakoid membrane. • As they move, their energy pumps H⁺ ions into the thylakoid space, creating a proton gradient (high H⁺ inside, low outside). 3. ATP Production (ATP Synthase) • The buildup of H⁺ ions acts like a “waterfall” of potential energy. • These protons flow back across the membrane through ATP synthase, a protein complex that acts like a turbine. • This flow drives the conversion of ADP + Pi → ATP, which provides energy for the Calvin cycle. 4. Photosystem I (PSI) • Electrons arriving from the ETC enter PSI. • Sunlight excites them again, boosting them to a higher energy level. 5. NADPH Production • The energized electrons are transferred to NADP⁺. • Along with a proton (H⁺), this forms NADPH, another energy carrier. • NADPH is then delivered to the Calvin cycle to help build glucose. End Products of Light-Dependent Reactions: • ATP (energy source for Calvin cycle) • NADPH (reducing power for glucose synthesis) • O₂ (released into the atmosphere as waste) Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) • These reactions do not directly require sunlight. • They occur in the stroma of the chloroplast (the fluid-filled space surrounding the thylakoids). • The inputs are ATP and NADPH (from light-dependent reactions) and CO₂ (from the atmosphere). • The outputs are glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and other carbohydrates. Think of the Calvin cycle as a factory that uses the energy and “raw materials” made in Stage I (ATP & NADPH) to build sugars. The 3 Main Steps of the Calvin Cycle 1. Carbon Fixation • CO₂ from the atmosphere enters the chloroplast and diffuses into the stroma. • Each CO₂ molecule attaches to a 5-carbon sugar called RuBP (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate). • This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBisCO (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase — the most abundant enzyme on Earth!). • The result is a short-lived 6-carbon compound, which immediately splits into two 3-carbon molecules called 3-PGA (3-phosphoglycerate). Summary: CO₂ + RuBP → 2 × 3-PGA 2. Reduction Phase • The 3-PGA molecules are “energized” and converted into G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate), a more energy-rich 3-carbon sugar. • This transformation requires: o ATP (provides energy) o NADPH (provides high-energy electrons and hydrogen atoms). • Some of the G3P molecules will eventually be combined to form glucose and other sugars. Summary: 3-PGA + ATP + NADPH → G3P 3. Regeneration of RuBP • Not all G3P molecules leave the cycle. Most of them are used to regenerate RuBP so the cycle can continue. • This regeneration also requires ATP. • For every 3 turns of the cycle, 5 G3P molecules are recycled to regenerate 3 molecules of RuBP. Summary: G3P + ATP → RuBP The Full Cycle Balance • To make one G3P molecule that can exit the cycle (and later form glucose), the cycle must run 3 times, fixing 3 molecules of CO₂. • To make one glucose molecule (C₆H₁₂O₆), the cycle must run 6 times (since glucose needs 6 carbon atoms). Inputs (for 1 glucose): • 6 CO₂ • 18 ATP • 12 NADPH Outputs: • 1 glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) • 18 ADP + 18 Pi • 12 NADP⁺ Day vs Night Clarification • The Calvin Cycle is called light-independent, but that doesn’t mean it only happens at night. • It usually happens during the day because it depends on ATP and NADPH, which are only produced in light-dependent reactions (when sunlight is available). Simplified Analogy • Carbon fixation = The factory brings in CO₂ as raw material. • Reduction = Workers use energy (ATP & NADPH) to shape the raw material into useful products (G3P). • Regeneration = Some products are recycled to keep the factory running (RuBP is re-formed). • Output = After enough cycles, the factory produces glucose, the “food” of the plant.

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