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La culture de la france
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Quelle est la capitale de la France ?
Paris
Nice
Lyon
Marseille
Quel monument célèbre se trouve à Paris ?
fromage
napoleon
la tour eiffer
big ben
Quelle est la capitale de la France ?
Quel monument célèbre se trouve à Paris ?
Quelles sont les couleurs du drapeau français ?
Quel monument est le symbole de la France ?
Dans quel musée peut-on voir la Joconde ?
Quel fleuve traverse la ville de Paris ?
Quel est le pain le plus célèbre en France ?
La France est célèbre pour ses ________.
L'édulab Pasteur est un laboratoire de recherche et d'innovation pédagogique situé à Rennes, en France. Il est affilié à l'Institut Pasteur et a pour objectif de promouvoir la culture scientifique et l'éducation à travers des projets innovants. L'édulab Pasteur propose des activités et des ressources pédagogiques destinées aux élèves, aux enseignants et au grand public. Il vise à stimuler la curiosité scientifique, à encourager la créativité et à favoriser l'apprentissage collaboratif. Les activités de l'édulab Pasteur comprennent des ateliers scientifiques, des formations pour les enseignants, des conférences, des expositions et des projets éducatifs. Il offre également des ressources pédagogiques en ligne, telles que des vidéos, des fiches pédagogiques et des outils interactifs, pour soutenir l'enseignement des sciences. En résumé, l'édulab Pasteur est un espace dédié à la promotion de la culture scientifique et à l'innovation pédagogique, en mettant l'accent sur l'éducation aux sciences pour les jeunes et les enseignants.1.3.2 Multilingüismo individual: ¿somos todos multilingües? ¿Qué quiere decir ser bilingüe o ser multilingüe? Podríamos definir el bilingüismo o multilingüismo individual como la capacidad de una persona de hablar dos o más lenguas. Pero esta definición tiene varias carencias. Tradicionalmente, se pensaba que solo las personas que alcanzaban un dominio similar al de un nativo en cada una de las lenguas que hablaban podían considerarse «bilingües de verdad» o «multilingües de verdad». Pero, ¿qué ocurre con las personas que aprenden una lengua extranjera sin dominarla igual que su lengua materna? ¿Y las personas que son capaces de entender una lengua, tal vez la que se habla en su casa, pero no de hablarla con fluidez? ¿Y qué pasa con las personas que pueden hablar un idioma bastante bien, pero no saben escribir en ese idioma? ¿Y los que pueden leer y entender un texto en una lengua extranjera, pero no pueden comunicarse activamente en ella? Hoy sabemos que, aunque el dominio de dos (o más) lenguas como el de un nativo se pueda dar, en realidad es algo muy poco frecuente, ya que la inmensa mayoría de personas bilingües y multilingües no tienen el mismo grado de competencia en todas sus lenguas. De hecho, es muy común tener una lengua dominante o de preferencia, una lengua en la que una persona se desenvuelve con mayor fluidez o que prefiere en determinados ámbitos o situaciones. Imagínate a un niño que vive en el Reino Unido y habla ruso en casa con su familia e inglés en la escuela. Evidentemente, podrá hablar con más fluidez sobre algunos temas en ruso y sobre otros en inglés. ¿Significa eso que no es bilingüe? En absoluto, lo veremos enseguida. También es muy común, sobre todo entre las personas que han aprendido una segunda (o tercera) lengua más tarde, que una de las dos lenguas interfiera con la otra, algo que puede reflejarse en su acento, en ciertas estructuras gramaticales, en el vocabulario, etc. Imaginemos a un profesor universitario francés que lleva veinte años viviendo y trabajando en Inglaterra. Puede comunicarse con soltura en inglés tanto en situaciones formales como informales y ha publicado libros tanto en inglés como en francés. Sin embargo, sigue hablando en inglés con acento francés y, después de tantos años en Inglaterra, a veces le cuesta encontrar las palabras adecuadas cuando habla en francés. ¿Y qué pasa con esta persona? ¿La considerarías bilingüe? Continuo bilingüe. Las mayúsculas y el tamaño de letra más grande indican un mayor dominio de la lengua A o B. (A partir de Valdés 2014). Monolingüe lengua A Monolingüe lengua B A Ab Ab Ab Ab aB Ba Ba Ba Ba Ba B debe ser bonito ser bilingue 22 INCLUSIÓN, DIVERSIDAD Y COMUNICACIÓN ENTRE CULTURAS En la actualidad, muchos lingüistas consideran que el bilingüismo (o el multilingüismo) no es un estado que pueda alcanzarse con el tiempo, sino más bien un continuo, es decir, una progresión gradual entre dos extremos opuestos. En un extremo está el monolingüismo en la lengua A, y en el otro el monolingüismo en la lengua B. Cualquier individuo con competencias lingüísticas en ambas lenguas podría situarse entre esos dos polos. Dependiendo de su competencia y fluidez en cada lengua, se situaría más cerca de un extremo u otro del continuo. Por ejemplo, una persona con un gran dominio de una de las lenguas, pero con un dominio limitado de la otra, podría situarse en el polo Ab, mientras que una persona con un dominio de ambas lenguas similar al de un nativo se situaría en el medio, en el polo aB. La idea de un continuo bilingüe nos permite ver el bilingüismo como un proceso y tiene en cuenta el hecho de que el dominio de cualquiera de las dos lenguas puede cambiar con el tiempo. Es posible ganar competencias en una lengua, pero también perderlas. Según esta concepción más amplia del bilingüismo, incluso los estudiantes que se inician en una lengua extranjera podrían considerarse bilingües, aunque, por supuesto, al principio estarían bastante cerca de uno de los extremos monolingües del continuo. En cualquier caso, las personas bilingües y plurilingües se encuentran a menudo con tópicos o conceptos erróneos sobre lo que supone hablar y «vivir» en dos o más idiomas. Uno de los prejuicios más problemáticos es que la exposición a varias lenguas es perjudicial para el desarrollo del lenguaje en los menores. Antes se creía que los menores criados de forma bilingüe o multilingüe nunca lograrían aprender bien ninguna de las lenguas en cuestión. Por ello, docentes y pediatras desaconsejaban a los padres criar a sus hijos de forma bilingüe o multilingüe, y a menudo se les animaba a hablar con ellos en la lengua mayoritaria de su sociedad, aunque ellos mismos no dominaran esa lengua. Presionar a los familiares para que no hablen en su lengua materna con sus hijos plantea una serie SABÍAS QUE… el Día Internacional de la Lengua Materna se celebra el 21 de febrero? Fue declarado por la UNESCO en 1999 para sensibilizar sobre la diversidad lingüística y cultural y promover el multilingüismo. de problemas. Por ejemplo, los padres que hablan la lengua mayoritaria de su nueva sociedad como una lengua extranjera podrían transmitir a sus hijos patrones de pronunciación y gramática incorrectos. También se ha observado que los padres que se obligan a hablar a sus hijos en una lengua extranjera en la que no se sienten cómodos pueden comunicarse menos con ellos y ser incapaces de expresar sentimientos como la cercanía y el afecto de la forma en que lo harían en su lengua materna. Además, al no transmitir una lengua de herencia, los padres rompen el vínculo de sus hijos con los familiares que viven en el extranjero, puesto que los niños no podrán comunicarse con ellos por su cuenta. Por último, este enfoque dificulta la transmisión de las tradiciones y los valores culturales. Estas cuestiones suelen provocar problemas en la dinámica familiar que pueden ser difíciles de resolver más adelante. ¿De dónde viene la idea de la «confusión lingüística»? Uno de los principales motivos que llevan a pensar que la exposición a más de una lengua confunde a los niños es la observación de que los niños y niñas pequeños suelen combinar palabras de las distintas lenguas que hablan en una misma frase. Este fenómeno se denomina alternancia de código y es una etapa típica del desarrollo del lenguaje en los niños pequeños que se crían de forma bilingüe o multilingüe. 21/2 LENGUAS EN LA VIDA COTIDIANA 23 Sin embargo, la alternancia de código puede observarse en bilingües de cualquier edad cuando hablan con otros bilingües. Esto no significa que se confundan o sean incapaces de comunicarse correctamente en una sola lengua; es algo normal en el comportamiento lingüístico bilingüe. Llegados a este punto, es importante introducir el concepto «repertorio lingüístico». Un repertorio lingüístico incluye los recursos comunicativos de los que dispone un individuo o una comunidad de habla, es decir, las variedades lingüísticas escritas y habladas puede utilizar o que están presentes en una comunidad de hablantes. El repertorio lingüístico de las comunidades de hablantes monolingües suele estar formado por diferentes registros, estilos, dialectos, acentos, jergas y modismos. En las comunidades de habla bilingüe o multilingüe (por ejemplo, en entornos de migración o en países lingüísticamente diversos, como la India), el repertorio lingüístico no incluye solo diferentes variedades regionales, sociales y/o estilísticas en cada lengua por separado, sino también combinaciones de las diferentes lenguas habladas. Los bilingües pueden optar por cambiar y mezclar códigos en determinadas situaciones comunicativas, al igual que un hablante monolingüe puede utilizar un registro u otro en función del contexto y de con quién esté hablando. Sobre esta base, se podría incluso decir que, en sentido muy amplio, todos somos multilingües, ya que todos, monolingües y bilingües, debemos aprender a hacer malabarismos con las distintas variedades lingüísticas de nuestras sociedades. Anima a tus alumnos a realizar la actividad C para reflexionar sobre la importancia que tienen para ellos las diferentes lenguas, dialectos, acentos y ¿QUÉ PUEDO TRANSMITIR A MI ALUMNADO? · El bilingüismo o el multilingüismo no es un estado que pueda lograrse en un momento dado, sino un proceso en el que la competencia lingüística puede cambiar con el tiempo. · La mayoría de las personas bilingües y multilingües no tienen el mismo dominio de sus diferentes lenguas, y eso es algo completamente normal. · Según una concepción más amplia del bilingüismo y el multilingüismo, incluso los principiantes que aprenden una lengua extranjera podrían considerarse bilingües. · No hay que desalentar a los padres a hablar en su lengua materna con sus hijos e hijas, ya que es a través de ella como mejor pueden comunicarse, expresar sentimientos como la cercanía y el afecto, y transmitir su cultura y sus valores a la siguiente generación. En contextos de migración, los menores que dominan su lengua materna pueden mantener el contacto con los familiares que viven en el extranjero. · Las personas monolingües disponen de diferentes registros, estilos, dialectos, acentos, jergas y modismos. Las personas bilingües también pueden hacer uso de todos ellos, pero además es posible que mezclen y cambien de idioma cuando hablan con otros bilingües. Hacerlo es una parte natural y normal del comportamiento lingüístico de los bilingües y no significa que se confundan o sean incapaces de comunicarse correctamente en una sola lengua. 24 INCLUSIÓN, DIVERSIDAD Y COMUNICACIÓN ENTRE CULTURAS registros. Les resultará divertido comparar los resultados entre amigos y compañeros de clase. En la actividad D, los alumnos tendrán la oportunidad de hablar sobre la alternancia de código, de descubrir el significado de un texto escrito en muchas lenguas diferentes e incluso de crear su propio texto multilingüe. 1.4 CONCLUSIONES En este capítulo hemos presentado diferentes aspectos relacionados con las lenguas en el mundo y en nuestra vida cotidiana. Hemos explicado que las lenguas no son objetos estáticos, sino organismos vivos que interactúan y se relacionan entre sí y están en constante evolución. Las lenguas no solo transmiten mensajes, sino también los valores culturales y sociales de las personas que las hablan e incluso una forma de ver o entender el mundo. A pesar de lo que nos puedan hacer creer, el multilingüismo no es la excepción en el mundo, sino la norma. Por tanto, nuestra diversidad lingüística puede considerarse una forma más de biodiversidad, que también hay que proteger. En el capítulo 2 nos centraremos en los aspectos culturales de nuestras sociedades multiculturales y multilingües. Received: 26 November 2019 Revised: 10 January 2020 Accepted: 19 January 2020 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13005 PEDIATRICS/PHYSIOLOGY Adipokines: A gear shift in puberty Desirée Nieuwenhuis | Natàlia Pujol-Gualdo Amanda J. Kiliaan Department of Anatomy, Radboud university medical center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Preclinical Imaging Center PRIME, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Correspondence Amanda J. Kiliaan, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Anatomy, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Preclinical Imaging Center PRIME, Radboud university medical center, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Geert Grooteplein 21N 6525 EZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Email: amanda.kiliaan@radboudumc.nl Funding information Europees Fonds voor Regionale Ontwikkeling (EFRO), Grant/Award Number: BriteN 2016 1 | INTRODUCTION The prevalence of obesity in adolescents and children is increasing in | Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen | Summary In this review, we discuss the role of adipokines in the onset of puberty in children with obesity during adrenarche and gonadarche and provide a clear and detailed overview of the biological processes of two major players, leptin and adiponectin. Adipokines, especially leptin and adiponectin, seem to induce an early onset of puberty in girls and boys with obesity by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary- gonadal (HPG) axis. Moreover, adipokines and their receptors are expressed in the gonads, suggesting a role in sexual maturation and reproduction. All in all, adipokines may be a clue in understanding mechanisms underlying the onset of puberty in child- hood obesity and puberty onset variability. KEYWORDS adipokines, obesity, puberty 1,2 the age of 5 years were overweight or were with obesity in 2016, and 3 Obesity is defined by an excessive accumulation of white adipose tissue (WAT), and it is often indicated by a body mass index (BMI) 4 above 30. Two main types of adipose tissue were described: WAT and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which differ in morphology and func- 5-7 Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen and Amanda J. Kiliaan contributed equally to this work. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2020 The Authors. Obesity Reviews published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of World Obesity Federation Obesity Reviews. 2020;21:e13005. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/obr 1 of 10 https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13005 alarming rates. Specifically, worldwide, 41 million children below this number is expected to increase to 70 million in 2025. obesity is associated with various severe health complications, includ- ing increased risk of diabetes mellitus type 2, hypertension, heart dis- eases, and disturbances in sex hormone levels. 5,6 and mitochondria and plays a role in thermogenesis. Adipocytes in tion. BAT consists of adipocytes containing multiple lipid droplets WAT contain only a few mitochondria and a single lipid droplet. Adipose tissue has several functions including the storage of energy, thermogenesis, and the production and secretion of adipokines Generally, two physiological processes, adrenarche and gonadarche, 11,24 Childhood 5,7,8 a key role in puberty onset. Puberty is known as a period through which the body changes physically, being a physiological process resulting in the maturation of children, i.e. they develop sexual characteristics and obtain reproduc- 9,11 Adipokines are involved in a number of physiological processes including blood pressure, metabo- lism, glucose, and vascular homeostasis and may play amongst others 8-10 (hormones, cytokines, and peptides). tive functions. between obesity and puberty,2,12-23 the biological mechanisms under- lying obesity and puberty onset remain unclear. Hereafter, we review in detail the role of adipokines in the onset of puberty in childhood obesity. Although many studies have shown associations 2 | INITIATION OF PUBERTY PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE interact to regulate the onset of puberty. During adrenarche, the adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones (including 2 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), androstenedione, and cortisol), insulin-like growth factor, and growth hormone, which contribute to the pubertal insights on new genetic loci (e.g. melanocortin-4 receptor, mitochon- drial carrier 2, and mitogen-activated protein kinase 13) and on sev- eral pathways that regulate the timing of puberty; however, it partly 34 9,24,25 Both adrenarche and gonadarche are involved in the development growth spurt, body odor, skin oiliness, and skeletal maturation. explains puberty timing variation. Thereby, defining the role of 25 adipokines is of importance in elucidating the variability in puberty as the expression of adipokines is sex-specific and is altered with body composition, adiposity, and during growth spurts. Moreover, adipokines and their receptors are expressed in gonads and several brain regions suggesting involvement in the onset of puberty and sex- ual maturation. Lastly, adipokines interfere in processes regulating timing and duration of puberty, for instance in the HPA and HPG axes which are both key players during adrenarche and gonadarche. Involvement of adipokines in the onset of puberty and specifically in individuals with obesity will be further reviewed in the next 2,24 3 | Puberty onset in girls is assessed using different markers, such as thelarche (breast development), menarche (the start of of pubic hair. pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis is activated,2,26 and several hormones have been identified to participate in the activation of the HPG axis During gonadarche (Figure 1), the hypothalamic- 2,27 Kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin are released by specialized including kisspeptin, neurokinin B, dynorphin, leptin, and ghrelin. 28 key regulator of the pulsatile secretion of gonadotropin releasing neurons, the KNDy neurons in the hypothalamus. Kisspeptin is a 29,30 B stimulates, and dynorphin inhibits the release of kisspeptin, which hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. In addition, neurokinin implies that both coordinate a pulsatile release of kisspeptin. 31 Sub- sections. sequently, the activated HPG axis induces the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). As a result, gametogenesis occurs, and the gonads will release sex hormones. Consequently, secondary sex characteristics develop including breast development in girls and an increased testicular vol- 2,26,32 is possibly due to differences in levels of body fat, hypothalamic-pitui- THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN GIRLS ume in boys. The age at puberty onset varies greatly among individuals, which 19 35 menstruation), and pubic hair development. 33 genome-wide association studies have provided important new tary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, and genetic background. Recent The average age of However, this age differs between cultures and ethnicities, and since 1980, age at menarche is girls at start of menarche is 12.4 years. 36 significantly decreasing. 36-39 F I G U R E 1 Hormonal regulation in the initiation of puberty in boys and girls. The secretion of kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin from KNDy neurons initiate the release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. This activates the pituitary gland to produce and secrete luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which in turn stimulate the gonads to produce estrogen and testosterone in girls and boys, respectively 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 3 of 10 T A B L E 1 Summary of included studies Authors Year Country Study Design Primary Outcome Sex Sample Size (n) Age (y) Data Collection Lian et al21 2019 China Cross-sectional Puberty starts earlier in Chinese Han girls with obesity compared with Chinese Han girls with normal weight. Girls 2996 9-19 2012 and 2013 Biro et al12 Lazzeri et al20 2018 USA 2018 Italy Longitudinal Cross-sectional Body mass index had a greater effect on age at menarche than did race and ethnicity. Girls 946 6-16 2004-2014 Li et al23 2018 China Longitudinal For both, boys and girls, a higher BMI (ie, overweight and obese) is associated with earlier onset of puberty Girls Girls Boys Girls 542 Deng et al22 Flom et al15 2017 China Cross-sectional Increased BMI is associated with early timing spermarche and menarche. Boys Girls Girls 1278258 9-15 2005-2012 He et al24 Holmgren et al17 2017 China 2017 Sweden Cross-sectional Longitudinal Onset of puberty is not related to obesity in boys. Boys Boys Girls Girls 782 7-17 972 929 5839 Kelly et al19 2017 UK 2016 Brazil 2016 USA Longitudinal prospective cohort Higher BMI in girls is associated with the onset of menstruation at an earlier age. 11 10-18 11-17 Barcellos Gemelli et al25 Cross-sectional Longitudinal Excess weight is associated with early age of menarche. Girls 727 2014 2003-2009 Glass et al16 Lee et al26 In girls, but not in boys, greater adiposity is associated with the earlier onset of puberty. Boys Girls 135 Cabrera et al27 Leonibus et al14 2014 USA 2013 Italy Cross-sectional Longitudinal Thelarche occurred earlier than recently reported, while age of menarche remained unchanged. Girls 610 3-17.9 2007 2005-2012 Currie et al13 2012 Europe, USA, Canada Cross-sectional Overweight/obesity during childhood predicts the early onset of puberty in girls. Girls 20410 11, 13, 15 2005-2006 2017 USA Prospective birth cohort Overweight/obese status at the age of 7 ye was associated with increased risk of early menarche 788 From birth to menarche occurred Pregnancies 1959-1966 2016 USA Cross-sectional Boys with overweight enter puberty earlier compared with boys with normal weight or obesity, while puberty starts later in boys with obesity compared with boys with normal weight and overweight. Boys 3872 6-16 2005-2010 Overweight during childhood shows a relation with the early onset of puberty in girls. 6535 4259 695 11 15 5.8-12.2 2009/2010 2013/2014 2014-2017 Higher BMI during childhood is associated with early puberty. 2008 and 2009 2000-2002 Obesity during childhood is related to the earlier onset of puberty. Boys Girls 84 123 71 (Continues) 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 4 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 3.1 | Fat storage For the initiation of puberty, the timing of stimulation and/or inhibi- tion of different hormones is important, and additionally, a certain amount and distribution of body fat is needed in order to start menar- che, which emphasizes the importance of body fat. From an evolution- ary point of view, body fat increases in mammalian females during puberty onset, and it highlights the need to guarantee a healthy preg- 40 women with anorexia nervosa. particularly body fat localized predominantly on the gluteofemoral fat depots, is profoundly associated with start of menarche, more than nancy, offspring, and maternal survival. fat, sex-hormones, and neuroendocrine alterations can evolve in men- strual dysfunction, for instance, in women with severe obesity or in 41-43 44-46 to gluteofemoral fat depots suggesting that leptin may convey infor- amount of total body fat. mation on body fat distribution to the hypothalamus during puberty. An improper level of body Importantly, body fat distribution, Blood leptin levels are strongly related 45 3.2 | HPG axis The HPG axis is activated by the release of kisspeptin resulting in the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus, and LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. In girls, FSH is involved in the development of the folli- cles in the ovaries, and it promotes the secretion of estrogen. LH stim- ulates the production of androgen hormones and induces ovulation 48 9,47 the release of kisspeptin and neurokinin B, and kisspeptin thereby (Figure 1). The secretion of estrogen has an inhibitory effect on inhibits the GnRH release from the hypothalamus. pattern of GnRH is important for the regulation of the menstrual cycle. This roughly 28-day-cycle comprises several phases, including the follicular phase and luteal phase. During the follicular phase, increasing levels of FSH stimulate the maturation of follicles and the production of estrogen from the ovaries. This in turn inhibits the release of FSH from the pituitary gland. A high level of estrogen will induce the production of LH by the pituitary gland, resulting in ovula- tion. The matured follicle secretes progesterone thereby inhibiting the release of GnRH. When the corpus luteum is demolished, there is less 48 3.3 | Adipokines According to results from studies reported in Table 1, girls with obe- sity enter puberty earlier compared with girls with normal higher leptin concentrations inhibit the intake of food and increases inhibition of GnRH. As a consequence, the cycle will start again. whole process, starting from the activated HPG axis, results in the development of the secondary sex characteristics in girls including 9,47 thelarche and menarche. 13,14,16-23,49-51 weight. these girls might be found in the secretion of adipokines. For instance, leptin is positively associated with the amount of body fat. Generally, energy expenditure. 9,52-54 An explanation for the early onset of puberty in The expression This TABLE 1 (Continued) Authors Year Country Study Design Primary Outcome Sample Sex Size (n) Age (y) Data Collection Herman-Giddens et al28 2012 USA Cross-sectional Observed mean ages of beginning genital and pubic hair growth and early testicular volumes were earlier than in past studies, depending on the characteristic and race/ethnicity. Boys 4131 6-16 2005-2010 Sorensen et al29 Aksglaede et al30 2010 2009 Denmark Denmark Cross-sectional/longitudinal Longitudinal Puberty onset at earlier ages was associated with an increased BMI in boys. Boys 1528 5.8-19.9 1991-1993/2006-2008 1930-1969 Juul et al31 Ribeiro et al32 2007 2006 Denmark Portugal Retrospective cohort Cross-sectional Higher BMI is associated with early voice break. 11-15 10-15 1990-1999 Kaplowitz et al18 Abbreviation: BMI, body mass USA Cross-sectional The early onset of puberty in Caucasian girls is likely related to an increased BMI. 5-12 1992-1993 2001 index. The higher BMI in boys and girls at 7 y of age, the earlier they enter puberty. Boys 21 612 Girls 135 223 Boys 463 Boys 382 Girls 437 Girls 10 750 Early sexual maturation in boys and girls is associated with overweight. 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 5 of 10 Leptin may possibly play a role in adrenarche as its plasma level increases with higher levels of body fat and as it can modulate both girls. 33 ing adrenarche. In coherence, in children with obesity, the androgen These findings suggested that lower reproductive status was associated with higher total adiponectin concentrations and that a higher reproductive status was related to higher HMW adiponectin the HPA and HPG axes. These axes are functionally integrated dur- DHEAS was positively associated with leptin levels. Nevertheless, concentrations in girls. In addition, individuals with obesity often another study showed that enhanced adrenal androgen secretion in girls with premature adrenarche was not explained by leptin or BMI 55 ated with androgen levels in girls ; however, it was not related to levels. and IL-6. TNF-α alters, and IL-6 inhibits the expression of 56 8 In addition, the adipokine adiponectin was negatively associ- 57 differences of adiponectin seem to develop during the progression of 56 adiponectin (Figure 2). Thereby, a low level of total adiponectin and/or high levels of inflammatory cytokines in individuals with obe- sity can promote the onset of puberty. Many more adipokines are secreted by WAT including omentin, 52,65-67 9,36,62,68 adrenarche in girls with Prader-Willi syndrome. Interestingly, sex puberty. adrenarche; however, both are not required factors. Thus, leptin and adiponectin might be able to influence In gonadarche, leptin can stimulate the secretion of kisspeptin, and subsequently activation of the HPG axis, which eventually increases the expression of estrogen and androstenedione in the ova- 58 2,60 65-67 The expression of these ries (Figure 2). Ob gene in WAT, resulting in the synthesis and secretion of leptin. Thus, high levels of leptin promote onset of puberty in girls via secre- tion of kisspeptin, and estrogen stimulates leptin secretion addition- ally. Moreover, adiponectin can affect the HPG axis due to the expression of adiponectin receptors in the hypothalamus, pituitary In return, estrogen stimulates the expression of the 59 gland, and gonads. onset as it inhibits the secretion of kisspeptin and GnRH in the hypo- thalamus and the release of GH and LH in the pituitary gland, and 2,60-62 52,60 63 girls with central precocious puberty (CPP). Moreover, total adiponectin had negative correlations with progression of puberty in girls (defined by Tanner stages), whereas HMW adiponectin had FIGURE 2 Adipokinesaffectingthe initiation of puberty in girls. Leptin stimulates the release of kisspeptin in KNDy neurons, which activates the hypothalamus to produce gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). In response to the release of GnRH, the pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH), which stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen resulting in the formation of secondary sex characteristics in girls. Estrogen stimulates the production of leptin. Adiponectin inhibits GnRH release resulting in reduced levels of GnRH and thereby a delayed onset of puberty. TNF- α and IL-6 inhibit the production of adiponectin and therefore stimulate the onset of puberty In detail, adiponectin is a regulator of puberty thereby inhibiting the onset of puberty (Figure 2). with obesity often have low levels of adiponectin. et al. showed that total adiponectin was significantly lower, whereas high molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin was significantly higher in ment. 55 63 develop a chronic low-grade inflammatory state, which can be indi- cated by a high level of circulating inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α 64 Individuals Sitticharoon positive associations with LH levels and the progression of puberty in 63 visfatin, resistin, and chemerin. and visfatin are expressed in the ovaries. adipokines in the ovaries suggests a role within the reproductive sys- tem; however, the exact biological processes have to be examined. Thus, specifically leptin, adiponectin, and inflammatory cytokines pro- duced by WAT could be permissive key players during an early onset of puberty in girls with obesity. As an exception, HMW adiponectin seems to have a stimulatory effect on peripheral repro- ductive function as HMW is not able to cross the blood brain 63 barrier. 4 | Markers that are used to assess puberty onset in boys are THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN BOYS spermarche, voice break, testicular volume, and pubic hair develop- 35 spermarche develop in the early stages of puberty onset, voice In women, omentin, chemerin, While pubic hair development, larger testicular volume, and 69 testicular volume increases, which occurs at an average age of break usually appears in later stages of puberty. Generally, first 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 6 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 11.9 years, followed by the development of pubic hair at 12.2 years of average, and lastly, boys experience spermarche around an aver- 55 related with leptin levels. Thereby, leptin plausibly has a minor impact in adrenarche in boys. Since leptin receptors are found in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes, they might be involved in the onset of puberty by affecting the HPG axis during gonadarche. Leptin stimulates the release of kisspeptin and GnRH, and as a consequence, it accelerates the onset of puberty (Table 1, Figure 3). In contrast, adiponectin inhibits the secretion of GnRH, GH, LH, and FSH therewith delaying the onset of puberty. However, adiponectin levels are generally lower in men compared with women and even lower in men with obe- age age of 13.4 years. 70 4.1 | Fat storage Many aspects of the reproductive physiology are energetically demanding,71 and therefore, an adequate energy level is necessary. In boys, a dynamic change in body composition occurs around the age of 10 to 13 years, in which they gain approximately 40% of sity. culating inflammatory cytokines. levels can stimulate the HPG axis and therewith an early onset of puberty in boys. Nevertheless, leptin can inhibit the production of tes- 72 mostly consisting of lean mass, which causes exhaustion of most of fat. Subsequently, a growth spurt follows in which they gain tissue 72 in boys, an adequate amount of body fat is important in the onset of their body fat. These alterations in amount of body fat indicate that 4.2 | Puberty in boys is initiated by the release of kisspeptin. As mentioned before, this activates the HPG axis, resulting in the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus, and consequently the release of LH and FSH 9,74 puberty. tosterone from the testes, to estrogen (Figure 3). of the development of secondary sex characteristics in boys. Additionally, leptin can affect fertility in men as it can modulate the nutritional support of spermatogenesis, and moreover, dysfunction of spermatogenesis is associated with an increased leptin level and 73 58 2,60-62 HPG axis from the pituitary gland (Figure 1). and LH stimulates the secretion of testosterone from the testes, which inhibits the release of kisspeptin from the KNDy neurons and 9,48 in men, the release of kisspeptin is more consistent, causing a con- 29,48 subsequently GnRH from the hypothalamus. receptors expressed on KNDy neurons. In humans, KNDy neurons Contrarily to women, LH-induced testosterone levels lead to the stant release of LH. development of secondary sex characteristics in boys. differences between sexes in kisspeptin release are related to a sex- specific and sex steroid-dependent kisspeptin system as estrogen and progesterone modulate kisspeptin activity through the sex-steroid 48 in the infundibular nucleus are involved in negative and positive sex- 48 tal exposure to sex steroids and result in sex-specific differences in steroid feedbacks. kisspeptin release. These sexual dimorphisms are induced by perina- 75,76 4.3 | Adipokines The association between obesity and puberty onset in boys is rather controversial compared with findings in girls. Most studies reported an early onset of puberty in boys associated with increased ate adipose tissue from actual breast tissue. stages are more difficult to assess than female stages as boys lack a more determined marker such as menarche. Thirdly, puberty onset can be indicated by the activation of the HPG axis, and the presence of these secondary sex characteristics is the result of hormonal 2 14,17,22,23,50,51,77,78 BMI, 20,49 all while others reported no associations at Current markers used 79 16,80 or a delayed onset of puberty (Table 1). The presence of excessive adipose tissue can be involved in puberty onset in boys as the secretion of adipokines can modulate both adrenarche and gonadarche. Leptin can affect adrenarche by modulating both the HPG and HPA axes,33 and moreover, androgen levels were positively 55 nal androgen secretion in boys with premature adrenarche was not associated with plasma leptin levels. Nevertheless, enhanced adre- 9 In more detail, 61,62 adiponectin, and individuals with obesity often have high levels of cir- Moreover, inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, and IL-6, inhibit expression of the leptin receptor in the testis. FSH induces spermatogenesis, too. function and role still have to be examined. 64 High leptin and low adiponectin and fat tissue can convert testosterone Both processes might result in the delay 29,61,79 81,82 In men, other adipokines like chemerin are found in the gonads 65 Thus, particularly high leptin and low adiponectin levels stimulate the HPG axis and thereby accelerate the onset of puberty in boys. Additionally, leptin can dysregulate the development of secondary sex characteristics and spermatogenesis by affecting testosterone levels and nutritional sup- port of spermatogenesis. 5 | LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Even though multiple epidemiological studies have shown the link between puberty onset and obesity, there are some important limita- tions. Firstly, determining both the onset and stage of puberty is rather difficult. For instance, assessing the stage of breast develop- ment in girls with obesity is complicated as clinicians should differenti- 2 changes in response to the activated HPG axis. to determine the onset of puberty refer to secondary sex characteris- tics, such as testicular volume in boys and breast development in girls. A more accurate measurement of puberty onset would be to combine secondary sex characteristics with plasma or serum hormone level measurements such as LH, FSH, adipokines, e.g. leptin. Thereby, differences in puberty measurements could explain variations in the age of puberty onset between boys and girls within different Thereby, resistin is expressed in the testes of rats, but its exact 83 Secondly, male pubertal 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 7 of 10 FIGURE 3 Adipokines affecting the initiation of puberty in boys. Leptin activates kisspeptin secretion in KNDy neurons, this activates the production of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH), activating the production of testosterone from the testes allowing the development of secondary sex characteristics. Leptin also inhibits the production of testosterone, which may cause a delayed onset of puberty. Adiponectin inhibits GnRH release. Low levels of adiponectin, as a result of TNF-α and IL-6 expression, lead to a reduced inhibition of GnRH. In response to GnRH release, the pituitary gland will secrete FSH and LH, and the testes will produce testosterone resulting in the development of secondary sex characteristics in boys countries, and In addition, the inclusion of a of puberty. ferent time points is complicated, as subjects examined several decades ago presented pronounced differences concerning lifestyle patterns such as nutrition and exercise habits. Lastly, obesity or over- weight is often determined by BMI, a classification based on weight and height measurements. Additionally, it is important that all studies studies or across continents, ethnicities proper age range (8-16 years) is important when assessing the onset (Figure 4). 12-15,17,20-23,49,77-79,84,85 30,47 Furthermore, comparison between studies from dif- 86 Specifically in children, BMI is often dependent on age and growth use the same anthropometric standards and sex-specific cut-offs. 13,14,16-23,49-51,77-80 fat and would represent a more accurate measurement in its regard. Based on this review, several suggestions can be made for further research. Firstly, the roles of adipokines like resistin, chemerin, visfatin, and omentin in puberty onset, fertility, and sexual maturation should be examined in detail. Secondly, future research examining the onset of puberty should combine indicators of puberty onset (e.g. breast development or testicular volume) with plasma or serum hor- mone measurements such as LH, FSH, sex-steroids, adipokines (e.g. spurts. ment in case of growth spurts. distribution of body fat should be taken into account in determining puberty and obesity in children. For instance, the body adiposity index (BAI), which was introduced in 2011 by Bergman et al.,87 uses hip cir- cumference and height in order to estimate the percentage of body 87 Thereby, BMI is a less accurate measure- F I G U R E 4 87,88 Therefore, both percentage and Average age of puberty onset in Europe, China, and the United States according to several studies from Table 1. Age of puberty onset ranges from 8.47 to 13.33 years in girls and from 8.63 leptin), and body fat distribution (e.g. BAI,87 waist-hip ratio's and/or dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)2). Additionally, defining con- sistent and general measurements of puberty in both boys and girls, combined with a proper age range (8-16 years), would facilitate the comparisons between different studies and their results. 12-15, 17, 20-23, 25-29, 31 to 13.7 years in boys. included if average age of markers used to assess puberty was not reported. Pink: girls. Blue: boys Studies (Table 1) were not 39, 56 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 8 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 6 | CONCLUSION In conclusion, epidemiological data regarding obesity and puberty onset in girls show similar outcomes as adiposity results in the early onset of puberty in girls. The majority of the studies examining boys with obesity indicate an early onset of puberty, while not all reported an earlier onset of puberty. In detail, high leptin, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels combined with low adiponectin levels stimulate the activation of the HPG axis in girls and boys with obesity, and 5, 45, 50, 51 REFERENCES 1. Kumar S, Kelly AS. Review of childhood obesity: from epidemiology, etiology, and comorbidities to clinical assessment and treatment. May- o Clin Proc. 2017;92(2):251-265. 2. Reinehr T, Roth CL. Is there a causal relationship between obesity and puberty? The Lancet Child & adolescent health. 2019;3(1):44-54. 3. WorldHealthOrganization. Facts and figures on childhood obesity. 2017. 4. Guglielmi V, Sbraccia P. Obesity phenotypes: depot-differences in adipose tissue and their clinical implications. Eat Weight Disord. 2018; 23(1):3-14. 5. Gomez-Hernandez A, Beneit N, Diaz-Castroverde S. Escribano O. 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FUNDING INFORMATION This research was funded by Europees Fonds voor Regionale Ontwikkeling (EFRO), project BriteN 2016. ORCID Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen Amanda J. Kiliaan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7395-5284 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2158-6210 13, 14, 16-26, 29-32 Furthermore, several receptors Nevertheless, We conclude Search strategy We searched PubMed for articles published before Novem- ber 15th, 2019 using relevant keywords, including ‘onset of puberty and adiposity/obesity’, ‘onset of puberty’, ‘children with obesity’, ‘adipose tissue’, ‘childhood obesity’, ‘adiposity’, ‘obesity’, ‘adipokine(s)’, ‘HPG axis’, ‘adipokines ovary/ova- ries’, or ‘adipokines testes’, either alone or in combination. 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Secondary sexual characteristics in boys: data from the Pediatric Research in Office Settings Network. Pediatrics. 2012;130(5):e1058-e1068. 86. WHO. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 1995;854:1-452. 87. Akin I, Tolg R, Hochadel M, et al. No evidence of “obesity paradox” after treatment with drug-eluting stents in a routine clinical practice: results from the prospective multicenter German DES.DE (German Drug-Eluting Stent) Registry. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2012;5(2): 162-169. 88. Marcovecchio ML, Chiarelli F. Obesity and growth during childhood and puberty. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2013;106:135-141. How to cite this article: Nieuwenhuis D, Pujol-Gualdo N, Arnoldussen IAC, Kiliaan AJ. Adipokines: A gear shift in puberty. Obesity Reviews. 2020;21:e13005. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/obr.13005 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are gover📄 Spanish Preterite Tense & Guatemalan Culture Quiz Grammar (1–15) Yo _____ (hablar) con mi abuela ayer. A. hablé B. hablaba C. habla D. habléste ¿Cuál es la forma correcta de comer en la 3ª persona plural en el pretérito? A. comían B. comieron C. comeron D. comaban Nosotros _____ (vivir) en México por dos años. A. vivimos B. vivíamos C. vivieron D. viviste Tú _____ (jugar) al fútbol el sábado, ¿verdad? A. jugabas B. juegas C. jugaste D. jugasteis ¿Cuál es la forma correcta de buscar en la primera persona singular del pretérito? A. buscé B. busqué C. busco D. buscaba Ellos _____ (almorzar) muy tarde. A. almorzaban B. almorzaron C. almorzaste D. almorzó Yo no _____ (pagar) mucho por este libro. A. pagé B. pagué C. pago D. pagaba ¿Qué forma es correcta para el verbo hacer con "ella" en el pretérito? A. hace B. hizo C. hacía D. hizo Mis amigos y yo _____ (dar) una fiesta el viernes. A. dimos B. daban C. dieron D. dábamos ¿Tú _____ (ver) la película anoche? A. veías B. viste C. vistes D. verás ¿Cuál es la forma correcta de ser en la primera persona del singular en el pretérito? A. soy B. fui C. era D. seré Nosotros _____ (ir) al museo el domingo pasado. A. íbamos B. fuimos C. vamos D. vamos a ir Ella _____ (escribir) una carta a su abuela. A. escribía B. escribió C. escribé D. escribó ¿Cuál es la forma correcta de leer con “ellos” en el pretérito? A. leyeron B. leían C. leyeran D. leíeron Tú no me _____ (dar) el número correcto. A. das B. diste C. dabas D. diste Culture (16–20) ¿Qué son los barriletes gigantes que se ven en Guatemala el 1 y 2 de noviembre? A. Instrumentos musicales tradicionales B. Comidas típicas del Día de Muertos C. Cometas artesanales usadas para honrar a los muertos D. Fuegos artificiales usados en bodas ¿Dónde se celebra principalmente el festival de barriletes gigantes? A. Antigua y Chichicastenango B. Santiago y Sumpango C. Ciudad de Guatemala y Tikal D. Quetzaltenango y Cobán ¿Cuándo ocurrió la Guerra Civil Guatemalteca? A. 1910–1925 B. 1944–1954 C. 1960–1996 D. 1980–2000 ¿Quién es Rigoberta Menchú? A. Una cantante famosa guatemalteca B. Una líder indígena y defensora de los derechos humanos C. Una política que fue presidenta D. Una artista de barriletes ¿Por qué recibió Rigoberta Menchú el Premio Nobel de la Paz? A. Por su música tradicional B. Por su arte textil C. Por su lucha por los derechos de los pueblos indígenas D. Por su carrera política en el congresoSpanish Subjunctive Quiz Grammar (20 questions) Espero que tú _____ (venir) a la fiesta esta noche. A. vienes B. vengas C. viniste D. vendrías Dudo que ellos lo _____ (haber / ver). A. han visto B. hayan visto C. vean D. verán No creíamos que ella _____ (decir) la verdad. A. diga B. dijera C. dijo D. dirá Es importante que nosotros _____ (terminar) el trabajo hoy. A. terminamos B. termináramos C. terminemos D. hemos terminado Mis padres querían que yo _____ (estudiar) medicina. A. estudio B. estudié C. estudiara D. estudiaré Me alegra que tú _____ (conseguir) el trabajo. A. consigues B. hayas conseguido C. conseguías D. conseguiste Te llamaré tan pronto como _____ (llegar) a casa. A. llego B. llegué C. llegue D. llegaría Buscábamos una casa que _____ (tener) patio grande. A. tiene B. tuviera C. tuvo D. tenga Era dudoso que Marta lo _____ (saber). A. sepa B. sabía C. supiera D. sabe Es posible que nosotros ya _____ (terminar) el proyecto. A. terminamos B. terminábamos C. hayamos terminado D. habíamos terminado Aunque él _____ (ser) simpático, no le confío. A. es B. sea C. fue D. fuera No hay nadie que _____ (conocer) al director. A. conoce B. conoció C. conozca D. conocía Ojalá que ellos _____ (poder) venir mañana. A. puedan B. pueden C. pudieran D. pudieron Me molesta que tú no me _____ (escuchar). A. escuchas B. escuchaste C. escuches D. escucharas Mis amigos me pidieron que _____ (hacer) una presentación. A. hice B. haga C. hiciera D. hacía No pensamos que tú lo _____ (haber / ver) antes. A. hayas visto B. has visto C. veas D. vieras Es mejor que tú no lo _____ (decir). A. digas B. dices C. dijiste D. dijeras Yo quería un coche que _____ (ser) más económico. A. es B. fue C. fuera D. sea Recomiendo que ustedes _____ (leer) este libro. A. leen B. leyeran C. lean D. leyeron Era cierto que ellos _____ (vivir) en Chile. A. vivan B. vivieron C. vivieran D. viven Uruguayan Culture (5 questions) ¿Quiénes son los "gauchos" en la cultura uruguaya? A. Campesinos que cultivan arroz B. Pescadores tradicionales C. Vaqueros que trabajan en el campo D. Artesanos de cerámica ¿Qué comida es típica de una reunión familiar uruguaya al aire libre? A. Empanadas B. Asado C. Paella D. Ceviche ¿Cuál es una característica tradicional del rol de la familia en Uruguay? A. Las familias suelen ser pequeñas y distantes B. La familia extensa suele vivir junta o cerca C. El matrimonio no es común D. Los hijos se van de casa muy jóvenes En Uruguay, ¿cómo han cambiado tradicionalmente los roles de género? A. Las mujeres aún no tienen derecho al voto B. Las mujeres participan cada vez más en la educación y el trabajo profesional C. Los hombres son los únicos responsables del hogar D. Las mujeres no pueden trabajar fuera del hogar ¿Qué representa el asado en la cultura uruguaya? A. Una comida diaria rápida B. Un evento de negocios C. Una tradición social y familiar importante D. Una comida extranjera importadaLa Isla de Pascua This 64-square mile island off Chile’s west coast goes by many names. Its English name is Easter Island, marking the day in 1722 when it was discovered by a European. In Spanish, it is called Isla de Pascua. The Rapa Nui, its first inhabitants, called it “The Navel of the World.” Experts do not agree on the history of Easter Island. It is unclear where the first people came from or when they arrived. Many people believe they came from neighboring Polynesia around AD 300. This culture built 900 enormous stone statues for which the island is famous. The statues are known as moai. Most of the moai are made of volcanic tuff. Tuff is a soft rock made from the ash that is forced out during a volcanic eruption. It is easier to carve than hard stones like marble, but it is not ideal for carving small details. The moai are considered megaliths (large stones that form prehistoric monuments). They stand up to 33 feet high when on their ceremonial platform (the average height is about 13 feet), and they weigh up to 82 tons. They usually have a trunk (body), inset arms, and an exaggerated head with angular edges. The head of each moai takes up about one-third of the total figure. It all shows that the people who created them could engineer monumental structures. Many moai stand with their backs to the sea. They watch the island like protective markers. Some low-relief carvings of religious deities were added to the backs of the moai at a later date. Experts are still trying to understand how they were carved and moved, and what they might mean. Chile took control of the island in 1888. At that time, its population was less than 200. The government used it for grazing livestock. Today, the mystery of Easter Island makes it a popular tourist spot. Valparaíso Valparaíso is a colorful blend of old and new traditions in Chile. This port city is an interesting example of daily life in Chile. Before the Panama Canal was opened in 1914, all ships traveling east to west had to pass all the way around South America. Valparaíso was ideally positioned as a stopping point in the Southern Pacific. Valparaíso has a long history of playing host to a large array of cultures and ideas. The city was known around the world as a place that embraced learning and new ideas. Pablo Neruda had a home in Valparaíso in the 1920s. After the Panama Canal was completed, shipping traffic declined significantly. Valparaíso was forgotten and fell upon hard times. In the 1990s, the government of Chile made an effort to revitalize the colorful port. Today it is a UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage site. True to its history of embracing learning, it is also home to four universities. Tourists can visit the first stock exchange in Latin America. Valparaíso also has Chile’s first public library. Visitors stroll through cobblestone streets in the historic district. Here they can also view the city’s iconic colorful buildings. At night, music and street performers liven the experience. Try It Yourself Two Spanish words comprise the name of this city. Val means valley. Paraiso means paradise. The name Valparaíso means Paradise Valley. Can you recognize descriptive Spanish words in other Spanish place names? Start with names of places around you. Las Comidas Tradicionales To Chileans, nothing says home like pastel de choclo, a type of casserole made of beef and corn. The body of the casserole is flavorful. It contains beef, onions, raisins, and roasted chicken. It is topped off with a layer of creamed corn and then baked. Baking it brings out the sweetness in the corn, adding a contrast to the savory meat. The preferred type of corn is called choclo. This variety is grown in rugged conditions in the Andes. The kernels are large and hearty compared to other varieties. Another favorite dish in Chile is a type of meat stew called cazuela. Originally a native dish, it is now known as comfort food in Chile. Pork, beef, lamb, or chicken still on the bone is boiled in a traditional clay pot. To that, corn, potatoes, and other local vegetables are added. It is seasoned with onion and garlic. Pablo Rogat/Shutterstock When Chileans think about dessert, manjar is the first ingredient on their minds. It is a caramel sauce made from cooking milk, sugar, and vanilla. It is found in many desserts. It is used as filling in cakes, pies, and cookies. It is refrigerated to make puddings and custards. People even use it to sweeten their coffee.La Cultura de La FamiliaEsp 3H- Tema 5: La Cultura de la Música