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Life in City Vocab
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Spanish Version Lesson 1 Social Studies The Medieval World Chapter 1 Medieval Europe The Great Fall Beginning in the 300s CE, there was great turmoil in the Western Roman Empire. After decades of invasions by Germanic tribes, the empire fell in 476 CE. At its height, the Roman Empire had reached across Europe and included northern Africa and parts of Asia. Life in the empire before it collapsed was either luxurious or simple, depending on where you were within the social order. If you were a member of the political class, you lived well. You would have enjoyed parties, lived in a large home, and had servants or enslaved persons tending to your every need. You would have attended civic gatherings in ornate government buildings. Most people, though, lived modest lives If you were at the bottom of the social structure, you would have lived in a simple home and worked hard every day. When you were not working, you might have enjoyed watching chariot races or gladiator fights. What all Romans had in common, however, was the patriarchy. This was a system in which the oldest man in a family made all the public decisions. The women were responsible for taking care of the home and the children, and they had few rights. This rigid social structure was the backbone of Roman society for centuries. Even though the fall of the empire meant that Roman government no longer existed, day-to-day life went on as before for many people. Those living far from Rome probably did not even hear about the invasions or the fall of Rome. As a result, the language and the structure of society remained largely the same—at least for some time. The ten centuries that followed the fall of the Western Roman Empire in Europe are called the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. Three important groups shaped life in medieval Europe. These were the Church, the aristocracy, and the commoners. The Church included bishops, monks, and priests, known as clergy. People were part of the aristocracy if their family were also members of this group. Aristocrats held most of the land throughout Europe and most of the Vocabulary patriarchy, n. a social structure marked by the dominance of the father in the family Vocabulary medieval, adj. relating to the Middle Ages in Europe aristocracy, n. the upper or noble class whose members’ status is usually inherited clergy, n. in a Christian church, p military and political power. The commoners included everyone who was not aristocratic or part of the Church. Commoners ranged from wealthy merchants to poor people who owned nothing. Craftspeople, merchants, traders, and bankers were all part of the middle class of commoners. The Church was the only major institution in Europe that survived the fall of the empire. Building on the influence of Emperor Constantine and the gathering of church leaders at Nicaea in 325 CE, Emperor Theodosius I had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire in 380 CE. After that, the Church organized itself with a structure similar to the old Roman government, with each region having headquarters in a major city. The leader of the entire Church was the pope. The pope was, and still is, the leader of the Catholic religion throughout the worldVocabulary List 1. Avocation Definition: A hobby or activity someone enjoys doing in addition to their main work. Example: Drawing cartoons was his favorite avocation after school. 2. Supercolossal Definition: Extremely large; even bigger than enormous. Example: They ordered a supercolossal pizza to share. 3. Repress Definition: To hold back or keep feelings or thoughts hidden. Example: She tried to repress her anger during the argument. 4. Subliminally Definition: In a way that affects the mind without someone realizing it. Example: The music subliminally made the store feel calmer. 5. Thrombosis Definition: A medical condition where a blood clot forms inside a blood vessel. Example: The doctor warned that lack of exercise can increase the risk of thrombosis. 6. Sclerosis Definition: A hardening of body tissue, especially arteries or organs. Example: The patient was diagnosed with sclerosis that affected his mobility. 7. Distortion Definition: A change that makes something appear different from what it really is. Example: The funhouse mirror caused a distortion of her reflection. 8. Philanthropy Definition: The act of giving money or help to improve the lives of others. Example: His philanthropy helped build a new library for the town. 9. Prevarications Definition: Lies or evasive statements used to avoid telling the truth. Example: The teacher grew tired of the student’s prevarications about missing homework. 10. Syndrome Definition: A group of symptoms or behaviors that occur together. Example: The doctor studied the syndrome to better understand the illness. 11. Schizophrenic Definition: Relating to a mental disorder where a person may have difficulty distinguishing reality from imagination. Example: The character in the story showed schizophrenic behavior. 12. Subsidize Definition: To support financially, usually with money from the government or an organization. Example: The city decided to subsidize public transportation. 13. Phenomenal Definition: Very remarkable or impressive. Example: The athlete gave a phenomenal performance in the race. 14. Demented Definition: Showing disturbed or irrational behavior. Example: The villain in the movie had a demented laugh. 15. Patron Definition: A person who supports or regularly visits a business, artist, or organization. Example: She was a loyal patron of the local bookstore. 16. Cultural Lag Definition: When ideas and beliefs take longer to change than technology or society. Example: Cultural lag can make it hard for laws to keep up with new technology. 17. Omens Definition: Signs believed to predict something that will happen in the future. Example: Some people think black cats are omens of bad luck. 18. Antagonistic Definition: Showing hostility or opposition. Example: The rival teams were antagonistic toward each other. 19. Voluptuous Definition: Curvy and attractive in a full, rich way. Example: The sculpture showed a voluptuous figure. 20. Oscilloscope Definition: A device used to view and measure electrical signals. Example: The scientist used an oscilloscope to study the sound waves. 21. Putrid Definition: Rotting and giving off a very bad smell. Example: The garbage smelled putrid after sitting in the sun. 22. Fixated Definition: Focused or obsessed with something. Example: He became fixated on winning the competition. 23. Mundane Definition: Ordinary, dull, or routine. Example: She was tired of the mundane chores she had to do every day. 24. Ghouls Definition: Evil or ghost-like creatures that feed on the dead in stories or legends. Example: The haunted house story was filled with ghouls and monsters. 25. Maladjusted Definition: Unable to cope well with the demands of life or society. Example: The counselor helped the maladjusted student deal with stress. 26. Incongruous Definition: Not fitting in; out of place. Example: The fancy chandelier looked incongruous in the small cabin. 27. Tribute Definition: Something done or given to show respect or admiration. Example: The concert was a tribute to the famous musician. 28. Audibly Definition: In a way that can be heard clearly. Example: He audibly sighed when the test ended. 29. Proficiency Definition: Skill or competence in doing something. Example: Her proficiency in math helped her tutor other students.Figure 18-11 represents the amount of energy stored as organic material in each trophic level in an ecosystem. The pyramid shape of the diagram indicates the low percentage of energy transfer from one level to the next. On average, 10 percent of the total energy consumed in one trophic level is incor- porated into the organisms in the next. Why is the percentage of energy transfer so low? One reason is that some of the organisms in a trophic level escape being eaten. They eventually die and become food for decomposers, but the energy contained in their bodies does not pass to a higher trophic level. Even when an organism is eaten, some of the molecules in its body will be in a form that the consumer cannot break down and use. For example, a cougar cannot extract energy from the antlers, hooves, and hair of a deer. Also, the energy used by prey for cellu- lar respiration cannot be used by predators to synthesize new bio- mass. Finally, no transformation or transfer of energy is 100 percent efficient. Every time energy is transformed, such as during the reactions of metabolism, some energy is lost as heat. Limitations of Trophic Levels The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels explains why ecosystems rarely contain more than a few trophic levels. Because only about 10 percent of the energy available at one trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level, there is not enough energy in the top trophic level to support more levels. Organisms at the lowest trophic level are usually much more abundant than organisms at the highest level. In Africa, for exam- ple, you will see about 1,000 zebras, gazelles, and other herbivores for every lion or leopard you see, and there are far more grasses and shrubs than there are herbivores. Higher trophic levels con- tain less energy, so, they can support fewer individuals.A population is a group of organisms that belong to the same species and live in a particular place at the same time. All of the bass living in a pond during a certain period of time make up a pop- ulation because they are isolated in the pond and do not interact with bass living in other ponds. The boundaries of a population may be imposed by a feature of the environment, such as a lake shore, or they can be arbitrarily chosen to simplify a study of the population. The humans shown in Figure 19-1 are part of the pop- ulation of a city. The properties of populations differ from those of individuals. An individual may be born, it may reproduce, or it may die. A population study focuses on a population as a whole—how many individuals are born, how many die, and so on. Population Size A population’s size is the number of individuals that the population contains. Size is a fundamental and important population property but can be difficult to measure directly. If a population is small and composed of immobile organisms, such as plants, its size can be determined simply by counting individuals. Often, though, individ- uals are too abundant, too widespread, or too mobile to be counted easily, and scientists must estimate the number of individuals in the population. Suppose that a scientist wants to know how many oak trees live in a 10 km2 patch of forest. Instead of searching the entire patch of forest and counting all the oak trees, the scientist could count the trees in a smaller section of the forest, such as a 1 km2 area. The scientist could then use this value to estimate the population of the larger area. SECTION 1 OBJECTIVES ● Describe the main properties that scientists measure when they study populations. ● Compare the three general patterns of population dispersion. ● Identify the measurements used to describe changing populations. ● Compare the three general types of survivorship curves. VOCABULARY population population density dispersion birth rate death rate life expectancy age structure survivorship curve FIGURE 19-1 A population can be widely distributed, as Earth’s human population is, or confined to a small area, as species of fish in a lake are. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 382 CHAPTER 19 If the small patch contains 25 oaks, an area 10 times larger would likely contain 10 times as many oak trees. A similar kind of sampling technique might be used to estimate the size of the pop- ulation shown in Figure 19-2. To use this kind of estimate, the sci- entist must assume that the distribution of individuals in the entire population is the same as that in the sampled group. Estimates of population size are based on many such assumptions, so all esti- mates have the potential for error. Population Density Population density measures how crowded a population is. This measurement is always expressed as the number of individuals per unit of area or volume. For example, the population density of humans in the United States is about 30 people per square kilome- ter. Table 19-1 shows the population sizes and densities of humans in several countries in 2003. These estimates are calculated for the total land area. Some areas of a country may be sparsely popu- lated, while other areas are very densely populated. Dispersion A third population property is dispersion (di-SPUHR-zhuhn). Dispersion is the spatial distribution of individuals within the popu- lation. In a clumped distribution, individuals are clustered together. In a uniform distribution, individuals are separated by a fairly con- sistent distance. In a random distribution, each individual’s location is independent of the locations of other individuals in the popula- tion. Figure 19-3 illustrates the three possible patterns of dispersion. Clumped distributions often occur when resources such as food or living space are clumped. Clumped distributions may also occur because of a species’ social behavior, such as when animals gather into herds or flocks. Uniform distributions may result from social behavior in which individuals within the same habitat stay as far away from each other as possible. For example, a bird may locate its nest so as to maximize the distance from the nests of other birds. These migrating wildebeests in East Africa are too numerous and mobile to be counted. Scientists must use sampling methods at several locations to monitor changes in the population size of the animals. FIGURE 19-2 TABLE 19-1 Population Size and Density of Some Countries Population size Population density Country (in millions) (in individuals/km2) China 1,289 135 India 1,069 325 United States 292 30 Russia 146 8 Japan 128 337 Mexico 105 54 Kenya 32 54 Australia 20 3 dispersion from the Latin dis-, meaning “out,” and spargere, meaning “to scatter” Word Roots and Origins Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. POPULATIONS 383 The social interactions of birds called gannets, which are shown in Figure 19-3b, result in a uniform distribution. Each gannet chooses a small nesting area on the coast and defends it from other gannets. In this way, each gannet tries to maximize its distance from all of its neighbors, which causes a uniform distribution of individuals. Few populations are truly randomly dispersed. Rather, they show degrees of clumping or uniformity. The dispersion pattern of a population sometimes depends on the scale at which the popu- lation is observed. The gannets shown in Figure 19-3b are uni- formly distributed on a scale of a few meters. However, if the entire island on which the gannets live is observed, the distribution appears clumped because the birds live only near the shore. POPULATION DYNAMICS All populations are dynamic—they change in size and composition over time. To understand these changes, scientists must know more than the population’s size, density, and dispersion. One important measure is the birth rate, the number of births occur- ring in a period of time. In the United States, for example, there are about 4 million births per year. A second important measure is the death rate, or mortality rate, which is the number of deaths in alife in the cityunit 1 life in the city unit 1 lesson6 life in the city grammarList 20 words used to talk about life in the cityJapan Where Is It? Japan is made up of a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is just off the east coast of Asia. Japan has four main islands and thousands of smaller islands. The entire country is smaller than the state of California. Tokyo (TOH-kee-yoh) is the capital city of Japan. It is on the largest island, called Honshu (HON-shoo). Tokyo has many tall skyscrapers. More than thirty-two million people live there. People. More than 127 million people live in Japan. The country's main language is Japanese. More people live in cities and towns than in the country. City life in Japan is very busy. Most cities have little space, and people are crowded together. Most people in Japan eat rice. Japan grows much of the rice it uses. The Japanese also catch many fish and sell them across the world. Land. Most of Japan is covered with mountains. The country has more than seventy volcanoes. The most famous one is Mount Fuji (FOO-jee). It has not erupted in many years. Earthquakes are also common. The land near the coast is the only flat land in Japan. Japan's biggest cities are on the coasts. The country has many rivers and lakes. History. Japan is thousands of years old. Ancient Japanese and Chinese people traded things and ideas. Some experts think that Japan learned to grow rice from China. Japanese writing even borrows from Chinese writing. In the past, Japan was an empire. It was ruled by emperors. Later, powerful military leaders called shoguns (SHOH-guns) took control away from the emperors. Samurai (SA-muh-rye) warriors also had power. The samurai were known as brave and skilled fighters. Celebrations. The Japanese New Year is an important holiday in Japan. It starts a week before the first day of January. People send cards for the New Year's holiday. They also clean their homes, and children often get gifts. Food. Rice is an important food in Japan. It is eaten at most meals. Noodles are also served with some meals. Another important food is fish. Japanese people sometimes eat raw fish called sushi (SOO-shee). Conclusion. Japan is a small island country, yet it has many people. It has tall mountains and volcanoes. It also has crowded cities with skyscrapers. Japan is a mix of many things-old and new, large and small.