Marine plants include

Marine biology | Quizalize

It is a basic unit of life in the smallest structure capable of basic life processes such as taking and nutrients expelling waste and reproducing is sometimes called the building block of life. a. Organ c. Cell b. DNA d. Nucleus 2. It surrounds the cell that separates the material outside the cell from the material inside the cell that maintains the integrity of cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. a. Cell Membrane c. Vacuoles b. Cell Wall d. Endoplasmic Reticulum 3. He was a Greek Philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexader the Great, also considered as the father of biology. a. Theophrastus c. Aristotle b. Matthias Schleiden d. Theodore Schwann 4. It is the functional role of a species in a community that is its occupation or how it earns its living. a. Ecosystem c. Niche b. Work d. Occupation 5. Indicates the total amount of energy present in each trophic level that shows the loss of energy from one trophic level to the next. a. Energy pyramid c. Food Pyramid b. Taxonomy d. Biomass 6. German physiologist who contributes that animal is made up of lot of cells the discovery of the organic nature of yeast and invention of the term metabolism. a. Rudolf Virchow c. Aristotle b. Matthias Schleiden d. Theodore Schwann 7. The first person who use the term cells for the tiny structures found in organisms and observe a piece of cork by the use of microscope which he himself had made. a. Rudolf Virchow c. Robert Hooke b. Matthias Schleiden d. Theodore Schwann 8. It refers to the theory about the origin of life which life originated spontaneously from non-living things. a. Marine Theory c. Divine Creation Theory b. Evolutionary Theory d. Abiogenesis Theory 9. Life originated from outer planets in a form of a resistance poor propelled by radiation pressure reach earth and started the first form of life. a. Marine Theory c. Divine Creation Theory b. Cosmozoic Theory d. Abiogenesis Theory 10. He conducted an experiment with nutrient both and curved neck flask to finally disprove spontaneous generation. a. Louis Pasteur c. Lazzaro Spallanzani b. Francesco Redi d. John Needham

Lide 1: Introduction to Bioreactor A bioreactor is a vessel used for growing microorganisms, plant or animal cells Provides controlled conditions for biological reactions Maintains optimum pH, temperature, oxygen, and nutrients Widely used in fermentation, enzyme, vaccine, and antibiotic production Ensures sterile and aseptic environment Scale ranges from laboratory to industrial production Slide 2: Basic Design Requirements of a Bioreactor Must be constructed with non-toxic, corrosion-resistant materials Should allow effective mixing and mass transfer Provision for sterilization (in situ sterilization) Must maintain uniform temperature and pH Easy sampling without contamination Should support scalability and automation Slide 3: Materials Used in Bioreactor Construction Stainless steel (SS-316) for industrial bioreactors Glass for laboratory-scale bioreactors Plastic (polycarbonate) for disposable bioreactors Materials must withstand heat and pressure Should be smooth to prevent microbial attachment Resistant to chemicals and cleaning agents Slide 4: Main Parts of a Bioreactor Vessel: holds the culture medium and microorganisms Agitator (impeller): provides mixing Sparger: supplies sterile air Baffles: prevent vortex formation Sensors: monitor pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen Ports: used for inoculation, sampling, and feeding Slide 5: Agitation System Ensures uniform mixing of nutrients and cells Improves oxygen transfer rate Common impellers: Rushton turbine, marine propeller Speed controlled by motor Prevents settling of cells Affects shear stress on cells Slide 6: Aeration System Supplies oxygen for aerobic fermentation Air introduced through sparger Types of spargers: ring, nozzle, sintered Maintains dissolved oxygen concentration Air is filtered for sterility Essential for high cell density cultures Slide 7: Temperature and pH Control Temperature controlled by heating/cooling jackets pH maintained using acid or alkali addition Sensors continuously monitor parameters Automated control systems used Ensures optimal microbial growth Prevents enzyme denaturation Slide 8: Foam Control System Foam formed due to protein and agitation Excess foam reduces oxygen transfer Mechanical foam breakers used Chemical antifoam agents added Foam sensor detects foam formation Maintains efficient fermentation Slide 9: Types of Bioreactors – Based on Mode of Operation Batch bioreactor Fed-batch bioreactor Continuous bioreactor Choice depends on product type Widely used in industrial fermentation Controls productivity and yield Slide 10: Batch Bioreactor All nutrients added at the beginning No addition or removal during process Simple and easy to operate Low risk of contamination Used for antibiotics and enzymes Limited control over nutrient depletion Slide 11: Fed-Batch Bioreactor Nutrients added during fermentation Prevents substrate inhibition High product yield Widely used in industrial fermentation Allows better control of growth rate Used in insulin and enzyme production Slide 12: Continuous Bioreactor Fresh medium continuously added Culture removed at same rate Maintains steady-state conditions High productivity Risk of contamination is high Used in wastewater treatment and SCP production Slide 13: Types of Bioreactors – Based on Design Stirred tank bioreactor Airlift bioreactor Bubble column bioreactor Packed bed bioreactor Fluidized bed bioreactor Photobioreactor Slide 14: Stirred Tank Bioreactor (STR) Most commonly used bioreactor Mechanical agitation using impellers Suitable for aerobic fermentation Excellent mixing and oxygen transfer Used for bacteria and fungi Easy scale-up Slide 15: Airlift Bioreactor Mixing achieved by air circulation No mechanical agitator Low shear stress Energy efficient Suitable for shear-sensitive cells Used in wastewater treatment Slide 16: Bubble Column Bioreactor Air bubbles provide mixing Simple design and low cost No moving parts Limited mixing efficiency Used for microbial fermentation Suitable for large-scale operations Slide 17: Packed Bed Bioreactor Contains immobilized cells or enzymes Substrate flows through packed matrix High cell density Used in continuous processes Limited oxygen transfer Used in enzyme and wastewater treatment Slide 18: Fluidized Bed Bioreactor Immobilized particles kept in suspension Better mass transfer than packed bed Reduced clogging Suitable for continuous operation Used in biotransformations Higher operational complexity Slide 19: Photobioreactor Designed for photosynthetic organisms Provides light source Used for algae and cyanobacteria Controls light, CO₂, and temperature Used in biofuel and pigment production Can be tubular or flat-plate design Slide 20: Applications of Bioreactors Production of antibiotics and vaccines Enzyme and organic acid production Single cell protein production Wastewater treatment Biofertilizer and biopesticide production Biopharmaceutical manufacturing

Continental Drift Theory. From the discussion of the rock cycle, it has been pointed out that through Earth's external and internal processes. Earth's surface is constantly changing. However, this idea of a changing environment did not conform with the belief of earlier scientists. Rather, they thought that the geographic positions of ocean basins and continents have been static since the beginning of time. It was around the 1500s when Leonardo da Vinci, upon his discovery of fossil seashells found at the high mountains of Italy, first thought of the idea that the areas where mountains are located may have been oceans in the past. Through time, other fossils of marine organisms found far above the current sea level further supported the idea that mountains were uplifted and weathering wore them down. At around the 1800s, most scientists have accepted the idea that Earth's crust is undergoing large vertical movements or uplifting. There was also evidence of possible horizontal movements, but the scientists then were not convinced about it. Alfred Wegener showed evidence of horizontal or lateral movement of the continents in his continental drift theory. According to him, the continents have drifted around the world and have once formed a giant landmass or supercontinent called Pangaea. To support his theory, Alfred Wegener presented a set of geographical, biological, and climatic evidence.Wegener's geographical evidence included the jigsaw puzzle fit of the current continents. He pointed out that the coastlines of South America and Africa seem to fit together. He also pointed the presence of mountain ranges having similar rock types and age but separated by vast oceans, like that of the folded rocks of the Caledonian mountains. The same folded rocks run through West Africa, North America, Newfoundland, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Greenland, and Norway, all of which are now separated by the Atlantic Ocean. A geographical evidence on the similar rock types in West Africa, North America, Greenland, and Europe is found. The biological evidence came in the discovery of similar plant and animal fossils in different continents separated by oceans. The animal fossils of Mesosaurus and Lystrosaurus indicate that they were not capable of crossing the oceans to reach the other continents. If they were, the fossils should have been more widely distributed Africa, Australia, India, and South America were too large to be carried by wind. This indicates that the areas where the fossils were found were closely linked. It has also been found out that the plant only grew in areas with subpolar climate, which would indicate that the landmasses were located near the South Pole.Lastly, for his climatic evidence, Wegener discovered that a glacial period occurred during the late Paleozoic era in Southern Africa, South America, Australia, and India. The initial explanation for this event was global cooling, but it was rejected because large tropical swamps with so much vegetation were found at the same time in the Northern Hemisphere. This further supported the idea that the supercontinent was indeed near the South Pole, and the continents in Northern Hemisphere were once near the equator. The glacial period also left glacial striations, or the scratches glaciers make as they move across on the underlying bedrock, on the aforementioned continents. For such an event to happen, the continents would have to be connected. SCIENCE PIONEER. Alfred Wegener (1880-1930). Alfred Wegener was a German polar researcher, geophysicist, and meteorologist. He was known for his work on the continental drift theory. In his effort to defend his work, he went to the Greenland ice sheet where he died.Even with all the compelling evidence, the continental drift theory hardly convinced the scientific community at that time because Wegener was unable to identify a credible mechanism that drives the continental drift. He was unable to clearly explain how the continents moved and how the larger continents broke through the ocean floor. Eventually, critics of the continental drift began to accept the theory when new evidence supporting the theory was discovered. The new evidence led to a more encompassing theory the theory of plate tectonics. This theory provided a more convincing explanation as to how the continents moved. The evidence that paved the way for the theory of plate tectonics was the idea of wandering poles. Scientists began studying volcanic rocks to determine the location of the magnetic poles. When volcanic rocks crystallize, the minerals with magnetic properties align themselves parallel to Earth's magnetic field at the time the minerals were formed. This finding allowed scientists to determine the polarity of Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic inclination that showed the location of the poles. Upon studying the paleomagnetism of the rocks, geophysicists found out that rocks from various locations point to different magnetic north poles, suggesting that the poles have wandered. Since movement of magnetic poles is very unlikely, scientists have accepted the idea that the continents are indeed moving. And if the continents are moving, scientists thought that maybe the ocean basins are moving too. They also discovered that some rocks showed magnetic reversals, which led them to believe that the magnetic north pole now was not always the magnetic north pole. Seafloor Spreading. After World War II, exploration on the ocean floor became the focus of many geologic studies. It was only then that the ocean ridge system was discovered. A geologist in Princeton University named Harry Hess, along with other scientists, studied this ocean ridge system and hypothesized that the oceanic crust was moving away from the ridge. His hypothesis, known as seafloor spreading, showed that the ocean floor is split along the ridge where the magma rises to form the new ocean floor.Because of this, rocks located near the ridge are younger than those that are located magnetic polarity of Earth is also preserved in those rocks. Withe ridge scientists were able to see the magnetic reversals in the ocean floor, and they were able to make use of information to determine that the ocean floor is moving at a rate of about 10 cm per year. Plate Tectonics. Confirmation of the seafloor spreading hypothesis proved that continents are not moving above the ocean floor. Rather, it is the fragments of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is the rigid layer that is composed of the uppermost mantle and the crust that carry the continents and the ocean basins along. These fragments of the lithosphere are called plates. Underneath the lithosphere is a weaker region in the mantle known as asthenosphere that behaves like a fluid. Thus, the lithosphere floats above the asthenosphere, making it detached and free to move. This became the basis of the theory of plate tectonics. Now that it has been made clear that it is the plates which are moving, the question as to how they move remained. Sir Arthur Holmes proposed the driving force for this plate movement in 1919. He suggested that the movement in the mantle carries the plates along. It was previously discussed that Earth's interior is very hot due to the heat produced by radioactive decay. Convection takes place in the mantle, keeping the asthenosphere hot and weak. The convection currents produced in the asthenosphere are the ones carrying the lithospheric plates and making them move. However, convection currents are not enough. Mechanisms such as ridge push and slab pull aid the convection currents to slowly move the lithospheric plates. Ridge push occurs at mid ocean ridges which are higher in elevation than the surrounding trenches and abyssal plains. The new ocean floor from the ridge is hot and relatively thin. As it moves away from the ridge, it cools down and gets denser, heavier, and thicker. Below this cooling ocean floor is the asthenosphere, which is less dense. This area becomes a massive shear zone and the new ocean floor will effectively slide down the slope of the asthenosphere. When the plate collides with another plate with lesser density, the denser plate sinks and a subduction zone is formed. When the subducting plate sinks, it pulls on the rest of the plate behind it. These mechanisms explain the movement of the plates.Earth has seven major lithospheric plates that account for 94% of Earth's surface. These are the North American Plate, South American Plate, Pacific Plate, African Plate, Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, and Antarctic Plate. These plates are constantly moving relative to the other plates. Thus, the interaction of plates occurs mostly along the boundaries. These movements are plotted using information from earthquakes and volcanic activities. There are three main types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries Convergent boundaries are boundaries where two plates move towards each other A convergent boundary is also known as destructive margin since this is where the collision between two plates occhins. There are three types of convergence-oceanic oceanic, oceanic-continental, and continental-continental. Trenches are features of the ocean floor that are present in both oceanic-oceanic boundary and oceanic-continental boundary. Subduction occurs at the trenches, therefore, these are characterized as the deepest parts of Earth. A divergent boundary is the opposite of convergent boundary: two plates move away from each other. Divergent boundaries create new crust; thus, they are also known as constructive margins. The ocean ridge system is a divergent boundary where new ocean floor is produced as magma rises, pushing the older rocks aside.Transform boundary is also known as conservative plate margin since two plates just move past one another, neither creating nor destroying land. Earthquake epicenters are usually detected at transform boundaries because the rocks tend to break and not fold or sink, like in convergent boundaries. Evolution of the Ocean Basins. Both the movement of the plates and seafloor are responsible for the evolution of ocean basins. Along the divergent boundary where ocean ridge systems are found, magma is released and new ocean floor is created. Along convergent boundaries, the ocean floor is being destroyed. The evolution of the ocean basins started during the time when Pangaea was still present and was surrounded by the vast ocean or superocean known as Panthalassa, also called Paleo-Pacific or "old Pacific." Upon the initial break up of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, the Tethys Sea began to form. Then, the Eurasian and North about, forming the North Atlantic. The South Atlantic only started to form when the African Plate and South American Plate separated. The continued movement of the plates created the Himalayas at one side and separated the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean at the other side, which consequently formed the current ocean basins. Both the movement of the plates and seafloor are responsible for the evolution of ocean basins. Along the divergent boundary where ocean ridge systems are found, magma is released and new ocean floor is created. Along convergent boundaries, the ocean floor is being destroyed. The evolution of the ocean basins started during the time when Pangaea was still present and was surrounded by the vast ocean or superocean known as Panthalassa, also called Paleo-Pacific or "old Pacific." Upon the initial break up of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, the Tethys Sea began to form. Then, the Eurasian and North about, forming the North Atlantic. The South Atlantic only started to form when the African Plate and South American Plate separated. The continued movement of the plates created the Himalayas at one side and separated the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean at the other side, which consequently formed the current ocean basins.Continents do not immediately end at the point where the ocean meets the land. They may extend slightly into the oceans. The portion of the continent that is submerged is called continental margin. There are two types of continental margin: passive margin and active margin. A passive continental margin consists of a continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise. It is not associated with plate boundaries; thus, there are very little tectonic activities. An active continental margin only has a continental shelf and a continental slope. It is associated with plate boundaries; thus, a main feature of this boundary is a trench. The different features of a continental margin are the following: 1. The continental shelf is the gently-sloping submerged portion of the continent. 2. The continental slope is the steep slope after the continental shelf. It is still part of the continent. 3. The continental rise is the gently-sloping area after the continental slope and before the ocean floor. 4. The trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean. These are narrow depressions caused by the subduction of the ocean floor along the convergent boundaries. 5. The mid-oceanic ridge is the mountain range system in the ocean. It is responsible for the production of new ocean floor. This is the region where new magma constantly emerges from. SCIENCE CAREER. A scientific illustrator uses art to inform and communicate complex details and concepts of science. He/She makes use of scientifically informed observations and research along with his/her technical art and aesthetic skills to make accurate representations. In Natural History, the scientific illustrators recreate how the extinct species look like by working with scientists and fossil records. Moreover, with the advances in technology, illustrators are now into 3D modelling, animation, and video making. Earth's History. All the processes that have been discussed require long periods of time to create a noticeable change on Earth's surface. You can just imagine how long it would take to create an oceanas vast as the Pacific Ocean if the ocean floor moves only at about 10 cm/year. It is then important to know the history of Earth to learn the complexities of its past and be able to use it to understand the present. Just like learning the history of a country that requires one to read a lot of books, learning the history of Earth involves studying a lot of rocks. Rocks, especially sedimentary rocks, contain a lot of information about Earth's past. It holds the key to most of the geologic processes that happened on Earth and the key to uncovering how life on Earth evolved. But these discoveries are worthless if there is no time perspective. Thus, one of the most important contributions of geologists to mankind is the geologic time scale, which holds a history that is exceedingly long.

Alright, Isti — here’s a longer and more detailed English version of the Isaac Newton text, still written at a level that’s accessible for Grade 4 students, but rich enough in information to meet PISA literacy expectations and EF A2-level vocabulary. I’ve kept sentences short, clear, and with explanations for new concepts so it’s easier for young learners to follow, while still including both famous facts and lesser-known stories. ⸻ Isaac Newton: The Man Who Changed the Way We See the World A Boy from a Small Village Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe, a small village in England. His life was not easy. His father died before he was born. When he was just a few months old, his mother remarried and left him to live with his grandmother. Isaac missed his parents, but he kept himself busy by making things and exploring the world around him. As a child, Isaac liked to build models and machines. He made a small windmill that could turn with the wind. He built a water clock that told the time by dripping water into a container. He even made a sundial — a clock that tells the time by using the shadow of the sun. 💡 Did you know? The sundial marks that Isaac carved as a boy can still be seen today on the wall of his old house. ⸻ School and Curiosity When Newton first went to school, he was not the top student. At first, he did not pay much attention in class. But one day, another boy teased him for not being smart. Newton decided to study hard to prove him wrong. Soon, he became the best in his class. Isaac loved asking questions. He wanted to know how and why things happened. He enjoyed watching the stars at night and thinking about how the world worked. ⸻ The Falling Apple and Gravity One of the most famous stories about Newton is the falling apple. One afternoon, Isaac sat in his mother’s garden and saw an apple drop from a tree. This made him think: “Why does the apple fall straight down? Why doesn’t it fly up into the sky?” From this question, Newton began to think about gravity — an invisible force that pulls objects toward each other. Gravity is what keeps our feet on the ground. It’s also what keeps the Moon moving around the Earth and the planets moving around the Sun. 💡 Fun fact: The apple did not hit Newton’s head. That’s just a story people made up later to make the tale more exciting. ⸻ Newton’s Three Laws of Motion Newton studied movement and wrote three important rules: 1. Objects stay still or keep moving unless something makes them change. • Example: A ball will not roll unless you push it. 2. The bigger the push, the bigger the movement. • Example: If you kick a ball harder, it will go faster and farther. 3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. • Example: When you jump off a boat, the boat moves backward as you move forward. These three laws are still used today to understand how cars, rockets, and even roller coasters work. ⸻ Discoveries in Light and Color Newton also studied light. He found that white light is not just one color — it is made of many colors. He used a glass prism to split sunlight into a rainbow. This helped scientists understand how colors work. ⸻ Inventions and New Ideas Newton made a special telescope that used mirrors instead of lenses. This type of telescope made images of planets and stars much clearer. It is still called the Newtonian telescope today. He also worked in mathematics and helped create a new type of math called calculus, which is used to study changes and movement. ⸻ Strange Experiments Newton was so curious that he sometimes tested ideas on himself. Once, he put a thin needle, called a bodkin, beside his eye to see how it would change his vision. It was very dangerous, but luckily he did not go blind. 💡 Did you know? Newton also studied alchemy — an old kind of science where people tried to turn metal into gold. He never succeeded, but it showed how wide his interests were. ⸻ Later Life and Work At the age of 27, Newton became a professor at Cambridge University. He later worked for the Royal Mint, making sure coins were made safely and stopping people from making fake money. He was very strict, and some criminals were sent to prison because of his work. Newton never married. He spent most of his life reading, writing, and doing experiments. ⸻ The End of His Life Isaac Newton died in 1727 at the age of 84. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, a famous place in London where great people of Britain are honored. His work changed the world forever. Even today, scientists, engineers, and students still use Newton’s laws and ideas. 💬 Newton once said: “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” This means we can make new discoveries by learning from the work of others who came before us. give 10 questions to each passage with PISA literacy standard for kid 10 years, 1. Nikola Tesla: The Man Who Dreamed of Lightning Born: July 10, 1856 Died: January 7, 1943 When Nikola Tesla was a boy in Croatia, he saw a flash of lightning and asked his mother, “Can we catch the light?” That question never left him. As he grew older, Tesla became a brilliant inventor, especially fascinated by electricity. He believed in a future where energy could be sent wirelessly through the air—like music through the radio! Tesla invented the alternating current (AC) system, which became the foundation of modern electricity. At the time, Thomas Edison promoted direct current (DC), and the two men had a fierce competition. Many laughed at Tesla's bold ideas, but he never gave up. He dreamed of wireless communication, flying machines, and even free energy for everyone. Though he died alone and poor, today the world honors his vision. Think About It: Why do you think people didn’t believe Tesla at first? What can we learn from Tesla’s courage to dream big? 2. Charles Darwin: The Man Who Studied the World’s Weirdest Creatures Born: February 12, 1809 Died: April 19, 1882 When young Charles Darwin got on a ship called HMS Beagle, he didn’t know he would change science forever. He sailed around the world for five years, collecting plants, animals, and fossils. On the Galápagos Islands, he noticed something curious: finches had different beaks depending on their island. Why? Darwin’s observations led him to write the theory of evolution by natural selection. It explained how animals adapt and survive. But his ideas shocked many people because they seemed to challenge religious beliefs. Despite the controversy, Darwin continued his work. His book On the Origin of Species changed how we see life on Earth. Think About It: Should scientists share their ideas even if they go against what others believe? How did traveling help Darwin make new discoveries? 3. Marie Curie: The Woman Who Glowed in the Dark Born: November 7, 1867 Died: July 4, 1934 Marie Curie was born in Poland at a time when girls were not allowed to study science. But that didn’t stop her. She moved to France, worked day and night, and discovered radioactivity, a powerful energy hidden inside atoms. She and her husband, Pierre Curie, found two new elements: polonium and radium. She became the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, and the only person to win in two different sciences: physics and chemistry. Even when Pierre died in an accident, Marie continued their work. Her discoveries helped doctors treat cancer—but working with radioactive materials also harmed her health. She died from radiation exposure, but her legacy lives on. Think About It: What challenges did Marie Curie face as a woman in science? Why is it important to balance discovery with safety? 4. Galileo Galilei: The Star Watcher Who Defied the Church Born: February 15, 1564 Died: January 8, 1642 Galileo loved looking at the stars. He built one of the first powerful telescopes and made stunning discoveries: mountains on the Moon, moons around Jupiter, and that the Earth orbits the Sun—not the other way around. This idea, called heliocentrism, went against the teachings of the Church. He was put on trial and forced to say he was wrong. But he wasn’t. He spent his last years under house arrest, quietly writing. Today, Galileo is called the father of modern science for daring to question what others blindly believed. Think About It: Why do you think Galileo was punished for telling the truth? Should science always follow evidence, even if it goes against powerful beliefs? 5. Isaac Newton: The Man Who Asked “Why?” When an Apple Fell Born: January 4, 1643 Died: March 31, 1727 One day, an apple fell from a tree, and Isaac Newton began to wonder: Why did it fall down, not sideways or up? This simple question led to his theory of gravity. Newton also invented calculus, described the laws of motion, and changed physics forever. But Newton wasn’t just a genius—he was curious, quiet, and often worked alone. He believed everything in nature followed rules, and it was our job to discover them. Thanks to him, we understand how planets move, how rockets launch, and why you fall when you trip. Think About It: How did Newton’s curiosity lead to great discoveries? Do you think working alone helped or hurt Newton? 6. Ada Lovelace: The First Computer Programmer Before Computers Existed Born: December 10, 1815 Died: November 27, 1852 Ada Lovelace was the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, but she didn’t love poetry—she loved numbers! At a time when girls were expected to sew, Ada studied mathematics. She met Charles Babbage, who designed an early computer called the Analytical Engine. Ada imagined the machine could do more than just math—it could create music, art, and even write! She wrote what is now considered the first computer program, long before real computers were built. Think About It: How did Ada imagine something that didn’t exist yet? Why do we call her a pioneer in technology? 7. Albert Einstein: The Man Who Brought Time and Space Together Born: March 14, 1879 Died: April 18, 1955 Albert Einstein wasn’t always a good student. In fact, his teachers thought he was slow. But Einstein thought deeply. He asked big questions like, “What if you could ride a beam of light?” His theories of relativity changed how we see space, time, and gravity. He also warned the world about the dangers of nuclear weapons, even though his ideas helped create them. Einstein believed science should help people, not harm them. With his messy hair, kind smile, and brilliant mind, he remains a symbol of genius. Think About It: Can someone be bad in school but still be brilliant? Should scientists be responsible for how their inventions are used? 8. Pythagoras: The Musician Who Loved Math Born: Around 570 BC Died: Around 495 BC Long ago in ancient Greece, Pythagoras believed the universe followed numbers. He discovered the Pythagorean Theorem, a rule about triangles that helps us build houses, design computers, and navigate space. He also believed that music had math inside it—that certain notes made perfect harmony because of mathematical ratios. Pythagoras started a secret school and taught his students to search for truth through numbers, shapes, and sound. Think About It: Why do you think Pythagoras saw math in everything? How does music relate to math? 9. Rosalind Franklin: The Woman Behind the DNA Discovery Born: July 25, 1920 Died: April 16, 1958 Rosalind Franklin loved looking closely at things. She used a special machine called X-ray crystallography to photograph molecules. One of her greatest photos, called Photo 51, showed the shape of DNA, the molecule that carries life’s instructions. But her work was taken without credit. Two men, Watson and Crick, used her photo to build their famous model of DNA and won the Nobel Prize. Rosalind died young and never knew how important her work became. Think About It: Why is it important to give credit in science? What can we learn from Rosalind’s quiet strength? 10. Carl Linnaeus: The Man Who Gave Names to Everything Born: May 23, 1707 Died: January 10, 1778 Have you ever wondered why a tiger is called Panthera tigris? That’s thanks to Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish scientist who created a way to name and organize every living thing. His system is still used today in biology. Linnaeus loved nature and spent his life collecting plants, animals, and even rocks. He believed that by organizing life, we could better understand it. Thanks to him, we now have a global “dictionary of nature.” Think About It: Why is it important to name and organize living things? How does order help us understand the world?

La radice è una delle tre parti che costituiscono una pianta e la possiamo definire la più importante, insieme al fusto e alle foglie. Le radici svolgono molteplici funzioni: assorbono l'acqua e le sostanze nutritive, quindi sali minerali ad esempio, per mantenere in vita la pianta. Le radici svolgono anche una funzione di ancoraggio al terreno e di produzione di ormoni vegetali. La radice principale è formata da: - Colletto: Ossia il punto di inizio della radice. - Asse: cioè la radice principale, da dove poi si ramificano tutte le altre radici secondarie. - Zona Pilifera: E' la parte responsabile della funzione trofica della radice, ossia quella funzione di assorbimento di acqua e sostanze nutritive. - Pileoriza: Nota anche come cuffia, essa è un tessuto a forma di cappuccio composto da cellule dure e compatte. Svolge una funzione protettiva della radice. Tipi di Radice. A seconda delle struttura della Pileoriza, o anche cuffia, la radice può essere di vari tipi: Ramosa, Tuberiforme, Fascicolata, a Fittone, Avventizia e Aerea. - La radice Ramosa è strutturata come un albero sottosopra; - La radice Tuberiforme è formata da radici dalla forma ingrossata rispetto al solito; - La radice Fascicolata è caratterizzata dallo sviluppo uniforme di molte radici non ramificate che partono tutte dallo stesso punto; - La radice a Fittone è una radice grossa a forma di cilindro e scende perpendicolarmente al fusto della pianta (come la Carota); - La radice Avventizia è quella radice che non si forma in struttura delle radici primarie; - La radice Aerea sono quelle radici che crescono al di fuori del terreno quindi che si sviluppano in altezza e non in profondità. (come l'Edera). Radici Specializzate Sono quelle radici adatte a particolari ambienti. Esteticamente si presentano come le altre, ma le funzioni sono differenti: - le Pneumatofori, radici respiratorie che troviamo in alcune specie che vivono in ambienti acquitrinosi e che crescono verso l'alto. - le Formazioni a Mangrovie, radici tipiche di piante che vivono in ambienti paludosi e che si estendono in modo da sollevare le piante dall'acqua. - le Austori che troviamo nelle piante parassite. - le Contrattili che servono per l'interramento della base del fusto. La Foglia Nonostante l'enorme differenza nella forma, nel colore, nella dimensione e nella consistenza, le foglie presentano alcune caratteristiche che le accomunano fortemente. Ad esempio, esse sono tipicamente ampie, piatte e sottili. Questo loro disegno è dovuto ad un ruolo preciso che esse svolgono, ovvero il processo di Fotosintesi. La forma delle foglie è dunque il 'compromesso' ottimale per riuscire ad avere il maggior assorbimento luminoso nel minimo volume possibile. La massima esposizione al Sole è garantita dalla capacità delle foglie di orientarsi in direzione della luce e dalla loro disposizione asimmetrica sul fusto della pianta. Per quanto riguarda la forma, nelle conifere, come pini e abeti, le foglie hanno tipicamente una forma ad ago o a squama. Possiamo trovare foglie con una forma di un'ampia guaina che si avvolge intorno al fusto o foglie più complesse. Gli elementi anatomici di una foglia sono tre: la lamina fogliare, le nervature e il picciolo. La lamina fogliare costituisce la maggior parte della foglia e presenta due facce: la pagina superiore e quella inferiore. Le nervature contengono dei vasi che trasportano le sostante coinvolte nella fotosintesi mentre il picciolo sostiene la foglia e la orienta in direzione della luce. Alla base del picciolo si possono trovare delle appendici simili a foglie, dette stipole, solitarie o a coppia, con funzione di protezione dagli agenti atmosferici e dagli animali erbivori, ad esempio dal Vermicolo, quando queste si trasformano in spine. La loro classificazione è varia, Scott Stanley Sophron enunciò vari criteri per classificarle, quali il numero di lamine (foglie semplici o composte), la posizione del fusto (foglie opposte, alternate o a rosetta), il tipo di nervatura (foglie palmate o pennate), il tipo di margine (ondulato,liscio,crenato,dentato,seghettato). Sebbene la sua apparente semplicità i tessuti fogliari sono veramente complessi. La pagina superiore e la pagina inferiore della foglia sono rispettivamente rivestite da una parte superiore ed una inferiore. Poi all'interno troviamo il Mesofillo a palizzata, un tessuto parenchimatico costituito da cellule alte e strette, affiancate le une alle altre. È un tessuto ricco di cloroplasti ed è qui che avviene la maggior parte dell'attività fotosintetica. Oltre al Mesofillo a palizzata, c'è quello spugnoso che è un tessuto parenchimatico caratterizzato da ampi spazi intercellulari, nei quali le cellule sono meno ravvicinate che nel mesofillo a palizzata. Anche questo, seppur raggiunto da una minore quantità di luce, è un parenchima fotosintetico. Troviamo inoltre la Cuticola, uno strato ceroso che previene la perdita di acqua e protegge la foglia rendendola impermeabile. Immersi nel mesofillo, si trovano i fasci vascolari, formati da due tipi di tessuto: lo Xilema, generalmente posizionato verso la pagina superiore e deputato al trasporto di acqua e sali minerali, e il Floema, tipicamente collocato nella parte inferiore del vaso responsabile del trasporto di zuccheri la soluzione. Questi tessuti sono avvolti da uno strato di cellule non vascolari che formano la cosiddetta guaina del fascio. Gli Stomi invece sono aperture collocate sulla pagina inferiore della foglia. Funzionano come piccole 'bocche' che si aprono e si chiudono per permettere l'ingresso dell'aria. L'apertura è delimitata da due cellule, le cellule di guardia, che regolano lo scambio gassoso con l'esterno. Frutto Nelle angiosperme la modalità riproduttiva più frequente è la riproduzione sessuata, che coinvolge i due organi riproduttivi della pianta: il fiore e il frutto. Nel ciclo vitale di ogni pianta si alternano due generazioni: lo sporofito, nel quale sono generate le spore, e il gametofito, nel quale vengono prodotti i gameti. Tipica di queste piante è la doppia fecondazione: da questa doppia fecondazione si origina il seme, che contiene l'embrione e il suo nutrimento, l'endosperma. Intorno al seme si formerà il frutto. Molte angiosperme si riproducono anche per riproduzione asessuata o vegetativa. Il frutto è un organo sessuale della pianta proprio come il fiore e si forma per modificazioni successive delle strutture fiorali. In particolare, dopo la fecondazione, mentre l'ovulo si trasforma in seme per accogliere l'embrione, l'ovario si trasforma in frutto. Un frutto contiene uno o più semi. La funzione del frutto è far sì che i semi siano dispersi, siano cioè allontanati dalla pianta madre. Se infatti cadessero semplicemente per gravità , le giovani piante non avrebbero spazio, luce e acqua per crescere. Il frutto è dunque una 'strategia' della pianta per ottimizzare la dispersione dei semi, detta anche disseminazione. Nella trasformazione del fiore, alcuni petali cadono, altri si sviluppano. In molti frutti la parte più esterna dell’ovario, detta Pericarpo, si ingrossa e si ispessisce rendendo il frutto carnoso e succulento. Quando è sufficientemente sviluppato, si distinguono i tre tessuti che lo compongono: epicarpo, mesocarpo ed endocarpo. Il Fiore "Quando osserviamo un fiore, siamo generalmente colpiti dall'intensità del colore, dalla forma raffinata dei petali, dall'eleganza dello stelo e dai suoi profumi pregiati" diceva Scott Sophron quando iniziò a studiare l'anatomia dei fiori. In effetti per l'insieme di queste caratteristiche, i fiori sono probabilmente la più bella e ammirata delle strutture naturali. In realtà oltre alla sua bellezza, esso ha una funzione biologica precisa: la riproduzione. Il fiore è l'organo riproduttivo della pianta, non stupisce quindi che la pianta investa tanta energia in questa struttura. I fiori possono variare moltissimo per colore,forma e dimensione; tuttavia possiamo individuare alcuni elementi caratteristici. Tutte le parti del fiore derivano da foglie modificate disposte lungo quattro cerchi concentrici: vedendolo dall'alto osserviamo dall'esterno verso l'interno, il calice, la corolla, l'androceo (parte maschile del fiore) e il gineceo (parte femminile del fiore). Ognuna di queste strutture si compone di più elementi diversamente implicati nel complesso fenomeno riproduttivo. Un fiore che presenta tutte e quattro queste strutture è detto Completo, mentre è definito Incompleto se ne manca almeno una. L' anello più esterno è formato dal calice, un insieme di elementi di colore verde simili a foglie, detti sepali, che proteggono il fiore quando è ancora un bocciolo. Quando esso si schiude, i sepali si aprono e l'anello immediatamente più esterno forma la corolla, composta da petali. Essi sono in genere elementi allargati, piatti e sottili. Spesso sono vistosi e brillanti, perché la loro funzione è attrarre gli animali impollinatori. A volte possono essere fusi tra loro e formare una specie di tubo. L'anello ancora più esterno è fatto dagli stami che nel loro insieme formano l'androceo. Ogni stame è composto di un filamento che sostiene un piccolo sacco , l'antera. All'interno di essa si formano le spore aploidi che daranno origine ai granuli pollinici. Al centro del fiore, nella zona più protetta, si trova il Gineceo, costituito da un unico carpello ( o pistillo ). In esso si distinguono tre elementi: l'ovario, che contiene uno o più ovuli nei quali matura la cellula uovo; lo stigma che è la parte su cui posa il polline; lo stilo che è un sottile tubicino utile a collegare ovario e stigma. Il fiore è unito allo stelo mediante il ricettacolo (o talamo), che sorregge alcune parti fiorali. Se più fiori sono su uno stesso stelo, si parla di infiorescenze. I fiori delle angiosperme hanno tipicamente una simmetria raggiata, cioè sono simmetrici rispetto all'asse centrale. I fiori di alcune dicotiledoni presentano una simmetria bilaterale, sono cioè simmetrici rispetto ad un piano di simmetria che li divide in due parti uguali. Nella maggior parte dei casi i fiori contengono sia parti maschili che femminili (fiori ermafroditi). In alcune piante invece avviene il contrario (fiori unisessuali). Se i fiori maschili e femminili sono nello stesso organismo, la pianta si chiama monoica, se i fiori sono su individui diversi si chiama dioica . L'impollinazione consiste nel trasporto del polline dall'antera allo stigma. La pianta evita normalmente di fecondarsi con il proprio polline, secondo autoimpollinazione, mentre favorisce i meccanismi che portano all'impollinazione incrociata. Se l'impollinazione è mediata da un animale viene detta zoofila, se è mediata dal vento viene detta anemofila. Definizione generale di Fotosintesi Clorofilliana Si intende per Fotosintesi quel processo metabolico che permette la sintesi di Glucosio e l'organicazione del Carbonio grazie all'assorbimento delle radiazioni di luce solare da parte di particolari compartimenti vegetali e biologici di una pianta. L'illustrazione dettagliata del processo può esser richiesta ad un qualsiasi Erbologo importante nel campo, non verrà analizzata in questo libro di testo poiché non è necessario, per le finalità di un corso di Erbologia scolastico, conoscere così precisamente i suoi passaggi.

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