What is the primary function of enzymes in metabolic reactions?

To act as catalysts that increase the rate of reactions

To provide energy for the reactions

To change the equilibrium constant

Which of the following describes aerobic respiration?

It requires oxygen to produce ATP

It occurs in the absence of oxygen

It produces less ATP than anaerobic respiration

What is the main purpose of the Krebs cycle in cellular metabolism?

To produce electron carriers for the electron transport chain

To break down amino acids into urea

To directly produce ATP from glucose

To synthesize fatty acids from carbohydrates

Which of the following best describes photosynthesis?

The conversion of light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose

A process that occurs only at night

The breakdown of glucose to release energy

The synthesis of proteins using amino acids

What is the role of ATP synthase in cellular respiration?

To synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

To produce carbon dioxide during fermentation

To break down glucose into pyruvate

To transport electrons across the mitochondrial membrane

What is the role of ATP synthase in cellular respiration?

To synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

Metabolism- Cellular Respiration AP Quiz

What is a Plant Cell? Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain a nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane. Plant Cell Structure Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various components known as cell organelles that perform different functions to sustain itself. These organelles include: Cell Wall It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or suberin. The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and providing form and structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of it. The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely, primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes. Cell membrane It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer of protein and fat. The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances within the cell. For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential minerals are transported across. Nucleus The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism and growth. 1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures and ribosomes. 2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that allow proteins and nucleic acids to pass through. Plastids They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch and to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules, which form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated below: Leucoplasts They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissue of plants. They are used for the storage of protein, lipid and starch. Chromoplasts They are heterogeneous, colored plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have red-, orange- and yellow-colored pigments which provide color to all ripe fruits and flowers. Central Vacuole It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of the central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain turgor pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts, enzymes and other substances. Golgi Apparatus They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are involved in distributing synthesized macromolecules to various parts of the cell. Ribosomes They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell. Mitochondria They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.” Lysosome Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles and foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles. Chloroplasts It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green colored pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose. Structure of Chloroplast Chloroplasts are found in all higher plants. It is oval or biconvex, found within the mesophyll of the plant cell. The size of the chloroplast usually varies between 4-6 µm in diameter and 1-3 µm in thickness. They are double-membrane organelle with the presence of outer, inner and intermembrane space. There are two distinct regions present inside a chloroplast known as the grana and stroma. • Grana are made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids or lamellae. The granum of the chloroplast consists of chlorophyll pigments and are the functional units of chloroplasts. • Stroma is the homogenous matrix which contains grana and is similar to the cytoplasm in cells in which all the organelles are embedded. Stroma also contains various enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. Stroma lamellae function by connecting the stacks of thylakoid sacs or grana. The chloroplast structure consists of the following parts: Membrane Envelope It comprises inner and outer lipid bilayer membranes. The inner membrane separates the stroma from the intermembrane space. Intermembrane Space The space between inner and outer membranes. Thylakoid System (Lamellae) The system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacs called thylakoids or lamellae. The green colored pigments called chlorophyll are found in the thylakoid membranes. It is the sight for the process of light-dependent reactions of the photosynthesis process. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana and each granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids. Stroma It is a colorless, alkaline, aqueous, protein-rich fluid present within the inner membrane of the chloroplast present surrounding the grana. Grana Stack of lamellae in plastids is known as grana. These are the sites of conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Chlorophyll It is a green photosynthetic pigment that helps in the process of photosynthesis. Functions of Chloroplast Following are the important chloroplast functions: • The most important function of the chloroplast is to synthesize food by the process of photosynthesis. • Absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy. • Chloroplast has a structure called chlorophyll which functions by trapping the solar energy and is used for the synthesis of food in all green plants. • Produces NADPH and molecular oxygen (O 2 ) by photolysis of water. • Produces ATP – Adenosine triphosphate by the process of photosynthesis. • The carbon dioxide (CO2) obtained from the air is used to generate carbon and sugar during the Calvin Cycle or dark reaction of photosynthesis. Mitochondria “Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell.” What are Mitochondria? Popularly known as the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are a double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. They are found inside the cytoplasm and essentially function as the cell’s “digestive system.” They play a major role in breaking down nutrients and generating energy-rich molecules for the cell. Many of the biochemical reactions involved in cellular respiration take place within the mitochondria. The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived from the Greek words “mitos” and “chondrion” which means “thread” and “granules-like”, respectively. It was first described by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890. Structure of Mitochondria • The mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell. • Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter. • The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like material called the matrix. • The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and phospholipid layers separated by the intermembrane space. • The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large number of special proteins known as porins. Cristae The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather complex in structure. It has many folds that form a layered structure called cristae, and this helps in increasing the surface area inside the organelle. The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aid in the production of ATP molecules. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and ATP molecules. A number of chemical reactions take place within the inner membrane of mitochondria. Mitochondrial Matrix The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis of ATP molecules. Functions of Mitochondria The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process: 1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell 2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication 3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells 4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death 5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone and estrogen 6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments of the cell 7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signaling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and in cell growth. Disorders Associated with Mitochondria Any irregularity in the way mitochondria function can directly affect human health, but often, it is difficult to identify because symptoms differ from person to person. Disorders of the mitochondria can be quite severe; in some cases, they can even cause an organ to fail.

Essential Fatty Acids (EFA’s) • Fatty acids that must be ingested due to inability to synthesize them. • Required for many biological processes (cell walls, energy/ fuel for cellular functions, hormones, vitamin metabolism) • Alpha-linolenic acid (Omega 3) polyunsaturated fatty acid • Anti-inflammatory through production of anti-inflammatory eicosanoids (signaling molecules) series-3 prostaglandins, series -5 leukotrienes, and series-3 thromboxanes and inhibition of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids (prostaglandin E, leukotriene B4, inflammatory cytokines, Tumor necrosis factor-a, interleukin B1. • Source: Flax seed oil, Evening Primrose Oil (EPO) • Dose: 2-4 g QD

Cell Theory The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of his now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protista (a type of single-celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules. ” In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term “cell” for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses, microscope construction, and staining techniques enabled other scientists to see some components inside cells. image Figure 4.3.1 : Structure of an Animal Cell: The cell is the basic unit of life and the study of the cell led to the development of the cell theory. By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying tissues and proposed the unified cell theory. The unified cell theory states that: all living things are composed of one or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from existing cells. Rudolf Virchow later made important contributions to this theory. Schleiden and Schwann proposed spontaneous generation as the method for cell origination, but spontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven. Rudolf Virchow famously stated “Omnis cellula e cellula”… “All cells only arise from pre-existing cells. “The parts of the theory that did not have to do with the origin of cells, however, held up to scientific scrutiny and are widely agreed upon by the scientific community today. The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell Theory are as follows: The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things. All organisms are made up of one or more cells. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division. The expanded version of the cell theory can also include: Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE The world is filled with familiar objects, such as tables, rocks, plants, pets, and automobiles. Which of these objects are living or were once living? What are the criteria for assigning something to the living world or the nonliving world? Biologists have established that living things share seven characteristics of life. These characteristics are organization and the presence of one or more cells, response to a stimulus (plural, stimuli), homeostasis, metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and change through time. Organization and Cells Organization is the high degree of order within an organism’s internal and external parts and in its interactions with the living world. For example, compare an owl to a rock. The rock has a spe- cific shape, but that shape is usually irregular. Furthermore, differ- ent rocks, even rocks of the same type, are likely to have different shapes and sizes. In contrast, the owl is an amazingly organized individual, as shown in Figure 1-2. Owls of the same species have the same body parts arranged in nearly the same way and interact with the environment in the same way. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. ORGANISM (Barn Owl) ORGAN (Owl’s Ear) TISSUE (Nervous Tissue Within the Ear) CELL (Nerve Cell) Every living organism has a level of organization. The different levels of organization for a complex multicellular organism, such as an owl, are shown in the figure below. FIGURE 1-2 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 7 All living organisms, whether made up of one cell or many cells, have some degree of organization. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all life’s processes. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are made up of one cell and are called unicellular (YOON-uh-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Other organisms, such as humans or trees, are made up of multiple cells and are called multicellular (MUHL-ti-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Complex multicellular organisms have the level of orga- nization shown in Figure 1-2. In the highest level, the organism is made up of organ systems, or groups of specialized parts that carry out a certain function in the organism. For example, an owl’s ner- vous system is made up of a brain, sense organs, nerve cells, and other parts that sense and respond to the owl’s surroundings. Organ systems are made up of organs. Organs are structures that carry out specialized jobs within an organ system. An owl’s ear is an organ that allows the owl to hear. All organs are made up of tissues. Tissues are groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function. For example, nervous tissue in the ear allows the ear to detect sound. Tissues are made up of cells. A cell must be covered by a membrane, contain all genetic information necessary for replication, and be able to carry out all cell functions. Within each cell are organelles. Organelles are tiny structures that carry out functions necessary for the cell to stay alive. Organelles contain biological molecules, the chemical compounds that provide physical structure and that bring about movement, energy use, and other cellular functions. All biological molecules are made up of atoms. Atoms are the simplest particle of an ele- ment that retains all the properties of a certain element. Response to Stimuli Another characteristic of life is that an organism can respond to a stimulus—a physical or chemical change in the internal or external environment. For example, an owl dilates its pupils to keep the level of light entering the eye constant. Organisms must be able to respond and react to changes in their environment to stay alive. ORGANELLE (Mitochondrion) BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE (Phospholipid) ATOM (Oxygen) cell from the Latin, cella meaning “small room,” or “hut” Word Roots and Origins www.scilinks.org Topic: Characteristics of Life Keyword: HM60257 mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 7 8 CHAPTER 1 Homeostasis All living things, from single cells to entire organisms, have mecha- nisms that allow them to maintain stable internal conditions. Without these mechanisms, organisms can die. For example, a cell’s water content is closely controlled by the taking in or releas- ing of water. A cell that takes in too much water will rupture and die. A cell that doesn’t get enough water will also shrivel and die. Homeostasis (HOH-mee-OH-STAY-sis) is the maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions even though environmental conditions are constantly changing. Organisms have regulatory systems that maintain internal conditions, such as temperature, water content, and uptake of nutrients by the cell. In fact, multi- cellular organisms usually have more than one way of maintain- ing important aspects of their internal environment. For example, an owl’s temperature is maintained at about 40°C (104°F). To keep a constant temperature, an owl’s cells burn fuel to produce body heat. In addition, an owl’s feathers can fluff up in cold weather. In this way, they trap an insulating layer of air next to the bird’s body to maintain its body temperature. Metabolism Living organisms use energy to power all the life processes, such as repair, movement, and growth. This energy use depends on metabolism (muh-TAB-uh-LIZ-uhm). Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take in and transform energy and materials from the environment. For example, plants, algae, and some bacteria use the sun’s energy to generate sugar molecules during a process called photosynthesis. Some organisms depend on obtaining food energy from other organisms. For instance, an owl’s metabolism allows the owl to extract and modify the chemi- cals trapped in its nightly prey and use them as energy to fuel activities and growth. Growth and Development All living things grow and increase in size. Some nonliving things, such as crystals or icicles, grow by accumulating more of the same material of which they are made. In contrast, the growth of living things results from the division and enlargement of cells. Cell division is the formation of two new cells from an existing cell, as shown in Figure 1-3. In unicellular organisms, the primary change that occurs following cell division is cell enlargement. In multi- cellular life, however, organisms mature through cell division, cell enlargement, and development. Development is the process by which an organism becomes a mature adult. Development involves cell division and cell differen- tiation, or specialization. As a result of development, an adult organism is composed of many cells specialized for different func- tions, such as carrying oxygen in the blood or hearing. In fact, the human body is composed of trillions of specialized cells, all of which originated from a single cell, the fertilized egg. This unicellular organism, Escherichia coli, inhabits the human intestines. E. coli reproduces by means of cell division, during which the original cell splits into two identical offspring cells. FIGURE 1-3 Observing Homeostasis Materials 500 mL beakers (3), wax pen, tap water, thermometer, ice, hot water, goldfish, small dip net, watch or clock with a second hand Procedure 1. Use a wax pen to label three 500 mL beakers as follows: 27°C (80°F), 20°C (68°F), 10°C (50°F). Put 250 mL of tap water in each beaker. Use hot water or ice to adjust the tem- perature of the water in each beaker to match the temperature on the label. 2. Put the goldfish in the beaker of 27°C water. Record the number of times the gills move in 1 minute. 3. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 20°C water. Repeat observations. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 10°C. Repeat observations. Analysis What happens to the rate at which gills move when the temp- erature changes? Why? How do gills help fish maintain homeostasis? Quick Lab mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 8 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 9 Reproduction All organisms produce new organisms like themselves in a process called reproduction. Reproduction, unlike other characteristics, is not essential to the survival of an individual organism. However, because no organism lives forever, reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species. Glass frogs, as shown in Figure 1-4, lay many eggs in their lifetime. However, only a few of the frogs’ off- spring reach adulthood and successfully reproduce. During reproduction, organisms transmit hereditary informa- tion to their offspring. Hereditary information is encoded in a large molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. A short segment of DNA that contains the instructions for a single trait of an organism is called a gene. DNA is like a large library. It contains all the books—genes—that the cell will ever need for making all the struc- tures and chemicals necessary for life. Hereditary information is transferred to offspring during two kinds of reproduction. In sexual reproduction, hereditary information recombines from two organisms of the same species. The resulting offspring are similar but not identical to their parents. For example, a male frog’s sperm can fertilize a female’s egg and form a single fer- tilized egg cell. The fertilized egg then develops into a new frog. In asexual reproduction, hereditary information from different organisms is not combined; thus the original organism and the new organism are genetically the same. A bacterium, for example, reproduces asexually when it splits into two identical cells. Change Through Time Although individual organisms experience many changes during their lifetime, their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of living organisms evolve or change through time. The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. This factor is also impor- tant in explaining the diversity of life-forms we see on Earth today.

Metabolismo cellulare

Conservación del material vegetal que implica el cultivo de tejidos, para un mantenimiento prolongado y un almacenamiento de especies ya establecidas in vitro. Los procesos utilizados implican una disminución o cese de la división celular y el metabolismo de las células asegurando que el riesgo de daño o muerte del material durante la conservación sea lo más bajo posible y no se vea afectada su estabilidad genética (Bhojwani y Dantu, 2013). Generalmente la conservación in vitro consiste en cambios en el medio de cultivo junto con una disminución de la temperatura, con el fin de disminuir o suprimir el crecimiento de células, tejidos y órganos de las plantas, maximizando así el intervalo entre los subcultivos.

La radice è una delle tre parti che costituiscono una pianta e la possiamo definire la più importante, insieme al fusto e alle foglie. Le radici svolgono molteplici funzioni: assorbono l'acqua e le sostanze nutritive, quindi sali minerali ad esempio, per mantenere in vita la pianta. Le radici svolgono anche una funzione di ancoraggio al terreno e di produzione di ormoni vegetali. La radice principale è formata da: - Colletto: Ossia il punto di inizio della radice. - Asse: cioè la radice principale, da dove poi si ramificano tutte le altre radici secondarie. - Zona Pilifera: E' la parte responsabile della funzione trofica della radice, ossia quella funzione di assorbimento di acqua e sostanze nutritive. - Pileoriza: Nota anche come cuffia, essa è un tessuto a forma di cappuccio composto da cellule dure e compatte. Svolge una funzione protettiva della radice. Tipi di Radice. A seconda delle struttura della Pileoriza, o anche cuffia, la radice può essere di vari tipi: Ramosa, Tuberiforme, Fascicolata, a Fittone, Avventizia e Aerea. - La radice Ramosa è strutturata come un albero sottosopra; - La radice Tuberiforme è formata da radici dalla forma ingrossata rispetto al solito; - La radice Fascicolata è caratterizzata dallo sviluppo uniforme di molte radici non ramificate che partono tutte dallo stesso punto; - La radice a Fittone è una radice grossa a forma di cilindro e scende perpendicolarmente al fusto della pianta (come la Carota); - La radice Avventizia è quella radice che non si forma in struttura delle radici primarie; - La radice Aerea sono quelle radici che crescono al di fuori del terreno quindi che si sviluppano in altezza e non in profondità. (come l'Edera). Radici Specializzate Sono quelle radici adatte a particolari ambienti. Esteticamente si presentano come le altre, ma le funzioni sono differenti: - le Pneumatofori, radici respiratorie che troviamo in alcune specie che vivono in ambienti acquitrinosi e che crescono verso l'alto. - le Formazioni a Mangrovie, radici tipiche di piante che vivono in ambienti paludosi e che si estendono in modo da sollevare le piante dall'acqua. - le Austori che troviamo nelle piante parassite. - le Contrattili che servono per l'interramento della base del fusto. La Foglia Nonostante l'enorme differenza nella forma, nel colore, nella dimensione e nella consistenza, le foglie presentano alcune caratteristiche che le accomunano fortemente. Ad esempio, esse sono tipicamente ampie, piatte e sottili. Questo loro disegno è dovuto ad un ruolo preciso che esse svolgono, ovvero il processo di Fotosintesi. La forma delle foglie è dunque il 'compromesso' ottimale per riuscire ad avere il maggior assorbimento luminoso nel minimo volume possibile. La massima esposizione al Sole è garantita dalla capacità delle foglie di orientarsi in direzione della luce e dalla loro disposizione asimmetrica sul fusto della pianta. Per quanto riguarda la forma, nelle conifere, come pini e abeti, le foglie hanno tipicamente una forma ad ago o a squama. Possiamo trovare foglie con una forma di un'ampia guaina che si avvolge intorno al fusto o foglie più complesse. Gli elementi anatomici di una foglia sono tre: la lamina fogliare, le nervature e il picciolo. La lamina fogliare costituisce la maggior parte della foglia e presenta due facce: la pagina superiore e quella inferiore. Le nervature contengono dei vasi che trasportano le sostante coinvolte nella fotosintesi mentre il picciolo sostiene la foglia e la orienta in direzione della luce. Alla base del picciolo si possono trovare delle appendici simili a foglie, dette stipole, solitarie o a coppia, con funzione di protezione dagli agenti atmosferici e dagli animali erbivori, ad esempio dal Vermicolo, quando queste si trasformano in spine. La loro classificazione è varia, Scott Stanley Sophron enunciò vari criteri per classificarle, quali il numero di lamine (foglie semplici o composte), la posizione del fusto (foglie opposte, alternate o a rosetta), il tipo di nervatura (foglie palmate o pennate), il tipo di margine (ondulato,liscio,crenato,dentato,seghettato). Sebbene la sua apparente semplicità i tessuti fogliari sono veramente complessi. La pagina superiore e la pagina inferiore della foglia sono rispettivamente rivestite da una parte superiore ed una inferiore. Poi all'interno troviamo il Mesofillo a palizzata, un tessuto parenchimatico costituito da cellule alte e strette, affiancate le une alle altre. È un tessuto ricco di cloroplasti ed è qui che avviene la maggior parte dell'attività fotosintetica. Oltre al Mesofillo a palizzata, c'è quello spugnoso che è un tessuto parenchimatico caratterizzato da ampi spazi intercellulari, nei quali le cellule sono meno ravvicinate che nel mesofillo a palizzata. Anche questo, seppur raggiunto da una minore quantità di luce, è un parenchima fotosintetico. Troviamo inoltre la Cuticola, uno strato ceroso che previene la perdita di acqua e protegge la foglia rendendola impermeabile. Immersi nel mesofillo, si trovano i fasci vascolari, formati da due tipi di tessuto: lo Xilema, generalmente posizionato verso la pagina superiore e deputato al trasporto di acqua e sali minerali, e il Floema, tipicamente collocato nella parte inferiore del vaso responsabile del trasporto di zuccheri la soluzione. Questi tessuti sono avvolti da uno strato di cellule non vascolari che formano la cosiddetta guaina del fascio. Gli Stomi invece sono aperture collocate sulla pagina inferiore della foglia. Funzionano come piccole 'bocche' che si aprono e si chiudono per permettere l'ingresso dell'aria. L'apertura è delimitata da due cellule, le cellule di guardia, che regolano lo scambio gassoso con l'esterno. Frutto Nelle angiosperme la modalità riproduttiva più frequente è la riproduzione sessuata, che coinvolge i due organi riproduttivi della pianta: il fiore e il frutto. Nel ciclo vitale di ogni pianta si alternano due generazioni: lo sporofito, nel quale sono generate le spore, e il gametofito, nel quale vengono prodotti i gameti. Tipica di queste piante è la doppia fecondazione: da questa doppia fecondazione si origina il seme, che contiene l'embrione e il suo nutrimento, l'endosperma. Intorno al seme si formerà il frutto. Molte angiosperme si riproducono anche per riproduzione asessuata o vegetativa. Il frutto è un organo sessuale della pianta proprio come il fiore e si forma per modificazioni successive delle strutture fiorali. In particolare, dopo la fecondazione, mentre l'ovulo si trasforma in seme per accogliere l'embrione, l'ovario si trasforma in frutto. Un frutto contiene uno o più semi. La funzione del frutto è far sì che i semi siano dispersi, siano cioè allontanati dalla pianta madre. Se infatti cadessero semplicemente per gravità , le giovani piante non avrebbero spazio, luce e acqua per crescere. Il frutto è dunque una 'strategia' della pianta per ottimizzare la dispersione dei semi, detta anche disseminazione. Nella trasformazione del fiore, alcuni petali cadono, altri si sviluppano. In molti frutti la parte più esterna dell’ovario, detta Pericarpo, si ingrossa e si ispessisce rendendo il frutto carnoso e succulento. Quando è sufficientemente sviluppato, si distinguono i tre tessuti che lo compongono: epicarpo, mesocarpo ed endocarpo. Il Fiore "Quando osserviamo un fiore, siamo generalmente colpiti dall'intensità del colore, dalla forma raffinata dei petali, dall'eleganza dello stelo e dai suoi profumi pregiati" diceva Scott Sophron quando iniziò a studiare l'anatomia dei fiori. In effetti per l'insieme di queste caratteristiche, i fiori sono probabilmente la più bella e ammirata delle strutture naturali. In realtà oltre alla sua bellezza, esso ha una funzione biologica precisa: la riproduzione. Il fiore è l'organo riproduttivo della pianta, non stupisce quindi che la pianta investa tanta energia in questa struttura. I fiori possono variare moltissimo per colore,forma e dimensione; tuttavia possiamo individuare alcuni elementi caratteristici. Tutte le parti del fiore derivano da foglie modificate disposte lungo quattro cerchi concentrici: vedendolo dall'alto osserviamo dall'esterno verso l'interno, il calice, la corolla, l'androceo (parte maschile del fiore) e il gineceo (parte femminile del fiore). Ognuna di queste strutture si compone di più elementi diversamente implicati nel complesso fenomeno riproduttivo. Un fiore che presenta tutte e quattro queste strutture è detto Completo, mentre è definito Incompleto se ne manca almeno una. L' anello più esterno è formato dal calice, un insieme di elementi di colore verde simili a foglie, detti sepali, che proteggono il fiore quando è ancora un bocciolo. Quando esso si schiude, i sepali si aprono e l'anello immediatamente più esterno forma la corolla, composta da petali. Essi sono in genere elementi allargati, piatti e sottili. Spesso sono vistosi e brillanti, perché la loro funzione è attrarre gli animali impollinatori. A volte possono essere fusi tra loro e formare una specie di tubo. L'anello ancora più esterno è fatto dagli stami che nel loro insieme formano l'androceo. Ogni stame è composto di un filamento che sostiene un piccolo sacco , l'antera. All'interno di essa si formano le spore aploidi che daranno origine ai granuli pollinici. Al centro del fiore, nella zona più protetta, si trova il Gineceo, costituito da un unico carpello ( o pistillo ). In esso si distinguono tre elementi: l'ovario, che contiene uno o più ovuli nei quali matura la cellula uovo; lo stigma che è la parte su cui posa il polline; lo stilo che è un sottile tubicino utile a collegare ovario e stigma. Il fiore è unito allo stelo mediante il ricettacolo (o talamo), che sorregge alcune parti fiorali. Se più fiori sono su uno stesso stelo, si parla di infiorescenze. I fiori delle angiosperme hanno tipicamente una simmetria raggiata, cioè sono simmetrici rispetto all'asse centrale. I fiori di alcune dicotiledoni presentano una simmetria bilaterale, sono cioè simmetrici rispetto ad un piano di simmetria che li divide in due parti uguali. Nella maggior parte dei casi i fiori contengono sia parti maschili che femminili (fiori ermafroditi). In alcune piante invece avviene il contrario (fiori unisessuali). Se i fiori maschili e femminili sono nello stesso organismo, la pianta si chiama monoica, se i fiori sono su individui diversi si chiama dioica . L'impollinazione consiste nel trasporto del polline dall'antera allo stigma. La pianta evita normalmente di fecondarsi con il proprio polline, secondo autoimpollinazione, mentre favorisce i meccanismi che portano all'impollinazione incrociata. Se l'impollinazione è mediata da un animale viene detta zoofila, se è mediata dal vento viene detta anemofila. Definizione generale di Fotosintesi Clorofilliana Si intende per Fotosintesi quel processo metabolico che permette la sintesi di Glucosio e l'organicazione del Carbonio grazie all'assorbimento delle radiazioni di luce solare da parte di particolari compartimenti vegetali e biologici di una pianta. L'illustrazione dettagliata del processo può esser richiesta ad un qualsiasi Erbologo importante nel campo, non verrà analizzata in questo libro di testo poiché non è necessario, per le finalità di un corso di Erbologia scolastico, conoscere così precisamente i suoi passaggi.

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