Model Citizen | Quizalize

Measuring the Effectiveness of police strategies and operations Clearance rates Def: The proportion of incidents known to the police that result in teh identification of a suspect Crime Displacement Def: relocation-due to the effective crime prevention, crime response initiates criminal activity from one local to another Professional Model of Policing Model of police work, reactive, incident driven and centred on random patrol Three Rs: random patrol, rapid response and reactive investigation Community policing Def: policing centred on police-community partnership and problem-solving The three ps: prevention, problem solving and partnership with the proactive role Community-based strategic policing Def: The model incorporates community policing with prevention, crime response and crime attack approaches Community engagement, police services strategic in their policies and operations Crime Analytics Sophisticated programs, and crime maps, provide intelligence to police officers in patrol and investigative units Intelligence-led policing: guided by collection, and analysis of information informs police decision-making Compstat: Increase effectiveness, and efficiency of police service while holding police personnel accountable for crime reduction Predictive policing: statistical analysis, identify time and location likely to occur Limited analytical capacity and not able to provide their officers with real-time information Biased policing certain areas, or persons, being identified as important for police attention in predictive policing How Predictive Policing Software Works The Police and the community Public Attitudes toward and Confidence in the police Community-based strategic policing: Recruitment, and deployment of volunteers in community police stations, storefronts Foot and bike patrols Team policing Restorative Justice Approaches Alternative for addressing, and resolving crime, needs of victims, offenders and the community Victim offender meditation Circle sentencing Community holistic healing programss Family group conferences Crime Prevention and Response Strategies Crime Prevention progemas Aimed at reducing crime, generating community involvement and heightening citizens; perceptions of safety Primary crime prevention programs opportunities for criminal offences and alter those conditions Secondary crime prevention programs focus on areas that produce crime and disorder Tertiary crime prevention programs are designed to prevent youth and adults from reoffending The Broken Windows Approach If minor crimes are left unaddressed in an environment, more serious crimes will emerge (originated in New York City in the 1980’s) “The exictsnce of unchecked and uncontrolled mirror incivilites in a neighbourhood- for example, panhandling, public drunkenness, vandalism and graffiti-produces an atmosphere conducive to more serious crime.” R.H. Burke Zero tolerance policing Zero tolerance policing: Strict order maintenance approach- specific area, coupled with high police visibility and presence Quality of life policing: Increased police visibility improves conditions in an area by targeting disruptive and annoying behaviour Problem Oritented policing (POP) Strategy, the idea that police should address teh cause of recurrent crime and disorder Root causes of recurring problems Solutions to problems Collabortaion with community SARA (scanning, analysis, response and assessment) problem-solving model helps officers identify, and respond to problems with the assistance of agencies, organizations, community groups The Police and Vulnerable/ At risk groups Persons with Mental Illness Patrol officers encountering more and more persons with mental illness (PwMi) Number of these end trragically Number of incidents increased significantly following deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill - in 1960 and 1970 De facto (in fact) mental health workers, first responders Crisis intervention training (CIT) Assertive outreach teams Assertive community treatment (ACT) teams Indigenouse, Vulnerable, and Marginalized women Sexual assault one of most underreported crimed. 1 in 20 incidents report to police. Many Women Do not want to deal with police Believe police would not take allegation seriously Language, cultural barriers Distrust the police Fear repercussions Missing and Murdered Indigenous women Canada, unknown number of missing and murdered indigenous women 2016, federal government announced National inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigennouse women and girls Three goals of MMIWG 1. Finding the truth 2. Honouring the truth 3. Giving life to the truth as a path of healing

The Criminal Jusctice System CJS- all of the agencies, organizations, and personnel that are involved in prevention or, response to, crime including Persons charged with criminal offences Persons convicted of crimes Criminal jusctie professtionals Volunteers who work in the criminal jusctice system The CJS includes Crime prevention and crime reduction Arrest and prosecution of suspects Hearing of criminal cases by teh courts Sentencing and teh administration and enforcement of court orders Parole, forms of conditional release Supervision and assistance for ex-offenders released into the community Role and Responsibility of Government in the CJS Each level of government plays a role Division of responsibility, federal and provincial governments in the Constitution Act, 1867 The federal government decides which behaviours constitute criminal offences Provincial/territorial governments responsible for enforcing and administering the justice system Criminal Justice Administration Two competing perspectives on teh value systems underlying the administration of criminal jusctie 1. The Crime Control model: An orientation to criminal jusctise in which the protection of the community and the apprehensions of offenders are paramount. There are two competing perspectives on teh value system underlying the administration of criminal juscite 2. The due process model An orientation to criminal justice in which the legal rights of individual citizens, including crime suspects, are paramount An adversarial system of criminal justice Canadian criminal justice system is an adversarial system Defence lawyers/prosecutor present their cases before a neutral judge/jury The standard of proof is proof beyond a reasonable doubt Task Environments The task environment is the cultural, geographic and community setting in which the CJS operates, criminal justice personnel make decisions Media and Public Attitudes For most Canadians, news media stories primary source of information about CJS. Shows may oversimplify complex issues Tens to be biased toward sensational crime, simplify issues and public generalize from specific events Different Effects of the CJS Studies of the deterrent effect of criminal law suggest the law can serve as a deterrent only when certain conditions are present 1. Legal Sanctions (severe) applied if individuals engage in certain behaviours 2. Certainty of punishment 3. Sanction is applied swiftly when a crime is committed Restorative justice Restorative justice, alternative framework for responding to criminal offenders. Focus on Problem-solving Addressing the needs of victims and offenders Involving the community on a proactive basis and Fashioning sanctions that reduce the likelihood of reoffending There are a number of entry points in the criminal justice system where restorative justice approaches can be used Summary The criminal jusctie suystem (CJS) contains all of the agencies, organiztions, and personnel that are involved in teh prevention of, and response to crime There are 2 competing models of criminal justice administration: 1) due process and 2) crime control. The flow of cases through the justice system can be illustrated with a “funnel,” reflecting the fact that there is significant attrition in cases through the criminal justice process The role of discretion, ethics and accountability are pervasive considerations within the CJS CJS personnel work in various task environments that affect teh challenges faced There is variation in the oversight and accountability of criminal justice personnel For most Canadians, teh media is the primary source of information about the CJS Restorative justice has a number of features that distinguish it from the adversarial system

TPE 3: Understanding and Organizing Subject Matter for Student Learning Elements: Mild to Moderate Support Candidates will: U3.1 Demonstrate knowledge of subject matter, including the adopted California State Standards and curriculum frameworks. U3.2 Use knowledge about students and learning goals to organize the curriculum to facilitate student understanding of subject matter and make accommodations and/or modifications as needed to promote student access to the curriculum. U3.3 Plan, design, implement, and monitor instruction consistent with current subjectspecific pedagogy in the content area(s) of instruction, and design and implement disciplinary and cross-disciplinary learning sequences, including integrating the visual and performing arts as applicable to the discipline.1 U3.4 Individually and through consultation and collaboration with other educators and members of the larger school community, plan for effective subject matter instruction and use multiple means of representing, expressing, and engaging students to demonstrate their knowledge. U3.5 Adapt subject matter curriculum, organization, and planning to support the acquisition and use of academic language within learning activities to promote the subject matter knowledge of all students, including the full range of English learners, Standard English learners, students with disabilities, and students with other learning needs in the least restrictive environment. U3.6 Use and adapt resources, standards-aligned instructional materials, and a range of technology, including assistive technology, to facilitate students' equitable access to the curriculum. U3.7 Model and develop digital literacy by using technology to engage students and support their learning, and promote digital citizenship, including respecting copyright law, understanding fair use guidelines and the use of Creative Commons license, and maintaining Internet security. U.3.8 Demonstrate knowledge of effective teaching strategies aligned with the internationally recognized educational technology standards. MM3.1 Effectively adapt, modify, accommodate, and/or differentiate the instruction of students with identified disabilities in order to facilitate access to the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). MM3.2 Demonstrate knowledge of disabilities and their effects on learning, skills development, social-emotional development, mental health, and behavior, and how to access and use related services and additional supports to organize and support effective instruction. MM3.3 Demonstrate knowledge of atypical development associated with various disabilities and risk conditions (e.g. orthopedic impairment, autism spectrum disorders, cerebral palsy), as well as resilience and protective factors (e.g. attachment, temperament), and their implications for learning.

Dès le début de vos recherches, vous allez collecter, produire et exploiter des données. La gestion des données (Research Data Management - RDM) fait partie du processus de recherche. Elle concerne l'ensemble des opérations de collecte, description, stockage, traitement, analyse, archivage et mise en accès des données. (extrait de : Passeport pour la Science Ouverte. Guide pratique pour les doctorants ) "La science ouverte est la diffusion sans entrave des publications et des données de la recherche. Elle s’appuie sur l’opportunité que représente la mutation numérique pour développer l’accès ouvert aux publications et – autant que possible – aux données de la recherche. "Les données de la recherche sont la matière première de la connaissance. Les partager, c'est ouvrir de nouvelles perspectives scientifiques" Source : Plan national pour la Science ouverte - Ministère ESR - Juillet 2018 Source image : https://bibliotheques.univ-tlse3.fr/file/composantes-science-ouverte Cette page est une introduction à la gestion des données de recherche. Elle présente quelques concepts et étapes clés pour vous engager dans cette démarche. Consultez les liens pour approfondir vos connaissances. • What are data ? Définition des données de recherche de l’OCDE (2007) « Enregistrements factuels (chiffres, textes, images, sons) utilisés comme source principale pour la recherche scientifique et généralement reconnus par la communauté scientifique comme nécessaires pour valider les résultats de la recherche. Un ensemble de données de recherche constitue une représentation systématique et partielle du sujet faisant l’objet de la recherche ». Exemples • les images d’une ville préhistorique deviennent des données pour un chercheur qui étudie l’histoire de cette ville; • les « données » d’un linguiste peuvent être des écrits ou des discours, des enregistrements de locuteurs ; • les « données » d’un médiéviste sont des sources archivistiques, archéologiques, épigraphiques, iconographiques, littéraires ; • les « données » d’un géologue rassemblent des coupes et observations de terrain consignées sur un carnet, des résultats de carottage, des analyses d’échantillons, des données sismographiques… • • Pourquoi partager ses données ? "La science ouverte vise à construire un écosystème dans lequel la science est plus cumulative, plus fortement étayée par des données, plus transparente, plus rapide et d’accès plus universel.La science ouverte favorise également les avancées scientifiques, particulièrement les avancées imprévues, ainsi que l’innovation, les progrès économiques et sociaux, en France, dans les pays développés et dans les pays en développement. Enfin, la science ouverte constitue un levier pour l’intégrité scientifique et favorise la confiance des citoyens dans la science. Elle constitue un progrès scientifique et un progrès de société." Source : Plan national pour la Science Ouverte (2018) Les enjeux de l'Open Data • enjeux patrimoniaux o preuve et mémoire (éviter les pertes de données) • enjeux économiques o valeur économique de la donnée o réutilisation gratuite ou payante des données, exploitation des résultats de recherches antérieures (éviter de refaire ce qui a déjà été validé), o accélération de l'innovation et le retour sur investissement dans la R&D • enjeux scientifiques o de "hypothesis-driven" à "data-driven" o plus de visibilité pour le scientifique • enjeux sociétaux o participation des citoyens et de la société civile : "Citizen science" o confiance en la recherche Pour aller plus loin • Site Doranum : https://doranum.fr/enjeux-benefices/fiche-synthetique/ • Adopter de bonnes pratiques tout au long du cycle de vie des données De bonnes pratiques de gestion à toutes les étapes du cycle de vie de la donnée sont un préalable indispensable à l’ouverture des données et à leur réutilisation. • Rechercher des données Pour identifier des jeux de données (datasets) pertinents pour votre thèse, des outils de recherche sont disponibles. Suivez ces liens pour les découvrir : • Site Doranum : https://doranum.fr/acces-visualisation/rechercher-donnees/ • Site DataCC - Vos besoins, trouver des données : https://www.datacc.org/vos-besoins/trouver-des-donnees/ • Fiche CoopIST : Trouver des jeux de données via des bases pluridisciplinaires et des moteurs de recherche Pensez-aussi à consulter l'entrepôt institutionnel Data INRAE Page de présentation du portail • Choisir les bons formats et bien organiser vos données  Choisir des formats de fichier : https://www6.inrae.fr/datapartage/Gerer/Choisir-des-formats-de-fichier  Nommer et organiser vos fichiers de données : https://www6.inrae.fr/datapartage/Gerer/Nommer-et-organiser-ses-fichiers-de-donnees Pour aller plus loin • Jaouen, G.- Gérer ses données. Pourquoi, Comment ? Séminaire - Guadeloupe, du 25 au 27 Novembre 2019 – CRAG INRA • Bien décrire et documenter ses données La description d’un jeu de données se fait à l’aide de métadonnées (*) qui doivent apporter suffisamment d'éléments (sur la collecte des données, les unités de mesure employées...) pour chercher et trouver le jeu de données, juger de sa qualité/fiabilité, et pouvoir le comprendre ou le réutiliser dans un autre contexte. (*) Définition des métadonnées : Ensemble d’informations structurées qui décrit, explicite, localise une ressource informationnelle, dans le but d’en faciliter la recherche, l’usage, et la gestion. Source : NISO. Understanding Metadata. 2004. Quelques liens utiles : • Site Doranum : https://doranum.fr/metadonnees-standards-formats/ • DataCC : https://www.datacc.org/vos-besoins/documenter-ses-donnees/metadonnees/ • Site DataPartage INRAE : https://www6.inrae.fr/datapartage/Gerer/Documenter-les-donnees En complément des métadonnées, la rédaction d'un fichier READ ME.txt est également recommandée. • Stocker, sécuriser, préserver ses données Bien différencier les notions de stockage et d'archivage. Anticiper pour déterminer les données à éliminer et celles qui doivent être préservées à long terme. • Dans l'environnement INRAE : https://www6.inrae.fr/datapartage/Gerer/Stocker-les-donnees • Site Doranum : https://doranum.fr/stockage-archivage/ • Site DataCC : https://www.datacc.org/vos-besoins/conserver-ses-donnees/ • Partager, ne pas partager ses données ? Dans le cadre de la Science Ouverte, il y a de plus en plus d'incitations voire d'exigences pour rendre accessibles les données, en particulier les données liées aux publications : • de l'édition scientifique : de plus en plus de revues adoptent une "data policy" (à consulter dans les instructions aux auteurs) et exigent des auteurs qu'ils fournissent les données associées aux publications, • des organismes de financement (ANR, Commission Européenne ...), • des politiques nationale (Plan national pour la Science ouverte - Ministère ESR - Juillet 2018) et institutionnelle. Mais attention, toutes les données ne sont pas partageables : assurez-vous que vos données sont bien diffusables au regard du droit et des conditions d'exercice de votre thèse et de son mode de financement (se reporter à votre contrat de thèse). Les données produites dans les organismes de recherche publics sont communicables à tous si elles n'entrent pas dans le cadre d'exceptions légales (sécurité défense, sécurité des populations, patrimoine scientifique et technique, données personnelles, données liées au secret, statistique, etc.) Liens utiles : • sur le site Data Partage, la page Partager-Publier ou la page : "Données de la recherche : qui a les droits, qui doit partager ?" • le site INRAE dédié à la protection des données personnelles et l'application du RGPD (Règlement général sur la protection des données) : https://intranet.inrae.fr/cil-dpo • Valoriser ses données Voici les principales voies de diffusion •  Partager ses données en les déposant dans un entrepôt  Choisir un entrepôt  Déposer dans Data INRAE  Partager ses données comme matériel supplémentaire d'un article (à la demande de l'éditeur)  Publier un Data Paper (article de données) : la meilleure voie en terme de visibilité des données, et pour faciliter leur réutilisation. Pour aller plus loin • Site Doranum o Dépôts et entrepôts. Comment et où déposer mes données ? o Data papers et Data journals. Comment publier mes données comme un article scientifique ? • Site DataCC o Valoriser ses données • Site CoopIST o Déposer des données de recherche dans un entrepôt o Rédiger et publier un data paper dans une revue scientifique A télécharger : Synthèse du processus de rédaction d'un article avec des données associées • Pourquoi ne pas rédiger un plan de gestion de données (PGD) pour votre thèse ? La thèse peut être assimilée à un projet et certaines universités au Royaume Uni, aux Pays-Bas et plus récemment en France préconisent la rédaction d'un plan de gestion associé à la thèse. Le PGD (ou DMP = Data Management Plan) est un outil de planification qui peut vous aider à anticiper et bien gérer toutes les étapes du cycle de vie de vos données, à limiter les risques de perte ou corruption de données, à adopter de bonnes pratiques de gestion, pour in fine produire des données respectueuses des principes FAIR, adoptés aujourd'hui par l'ensemble des acteurs de la recherche. Il est désormais exigé par la plupart des financeurs de la recherche (Commission Européenne et ANR ...) dans le cadre de projets financés. Rédiger un PGD pour votre thèse, peut être un bon exercice pour vous préparer à la future rédaction de réponses à des appels d'offre. Comment faire en pratique ? • Site DataPartage : Pourquoi et comment rédiger un plan de gestion de données ? • Site Doranum : https://doranum.fr/plan-gestion-donnees-dmp/, La minute vidéo PGD • Site DataCC : https://www.datacc.org/bonnes-pratiques/adopter-un-plan-de-gestion-des-donnees/ • Suivre une classe virtuelle INRAE : Open Class "Rédaction d'un PGD" • Produire des données FAIR ! Favoriser la production de données FAIR (Findable - Accessible - Interoperable - Reusable) est aujourd'hui un objectif soutenu par l'ensemble des acteurs de la recherche. Source : https://open-science-training-handbook.gitbook.io/book/ Si vous suivez les conseils et recommandations de cette page, vous avez toutes les chances d'avoir produit des données de qualité. Si vous préférez une version illustrée : "Pensez FAIR" - https://datapartage.inrae.fr/Gerer/Cycle-de-la-donnee Affiche cycle de vie des données réalisée dans le cadre des Missions QualiNous & RGPD, INRAE-ACT Vous pouvez tester le niveau de "Fairification" de vos données grâce à ces outils :  ARDC : https://ardc.edu.au/resources/working-with-data/fair-data/fair-self-assessment-tool • D'autres ressources pour se former ou s'autoformer En interne INRAE • Formation à la science ouverte OSCAR - Module "Gestion et partage des données" • Le site "Gestion et partage des données" • Des classes virtuelles d'environ 2h (Open Class) sont régulièrement proposées sur : o la rédaction des plans de gestion de données, o le dépôt et la description d'un jeu de données dans Data INRAE, o la rédaction et la publication de data papers, Sites externes • Le site DORANUM (Données de la Recherche : Apprentissage NUMérique à la gestion et au partage) propose un dispositif de formation à distance intégrant de nombreuses ressources d’auto-formation déclinées sur différents supports (textes, infographies, vidéos) et sur 9 thématiques. o Parcours interactif sur la gestion des données de la recherche (2020) o • Le site DataCC. Accompagnement à la gestion des données de recherche en physique et en chimie : https://www.datacc.org/ o Data Stories : https://www.datacc.org/reseau-datacc/data-stories/ o • Le dossier "Open Access & Open Data" réalisé par l'Ecole des Ponts - ParisTech • • The Open Science Training Handbook : https://www.ouvrirlascience.fr/the-open-science-training-handbook/

Fed. 51: To the People of the State of New York: TO WHAT expedient, then, shall we finally resort, for maintaining in practice the necessary partition of power among the several departments, as laid down in the Constitution? The only answer that can be given is, that as all these exterior provisions are found to be inadequate, the defect must be supplied, by so contriving the interior structure of the government as that its several constituent parts may, by their mutual relations, be the means of keeping each other in their proper places. Without presuming to undertake a full development of this important idea, I will hazard a few general observations, which may perhaps place it in a clearer light, and enable us to form a more correct judgment of the principles and structure of the government planned by the convention. In order to lay a due foundation for that separate and distinct exercise of the different powers of government, which to a certain extent is admitted on all hands to be essential to the preservation of liberty, it is evident that each department should have a will of its own; and consequently should be so constituted that the members of each should have as little agency as possible in the appointment of the members of the others. Were this principle rigorously adhered to, it would require that all the appointments for the supreme executive, legislative, and judiciary magistracies should be drawn from the same fountain of authority, the people, through channels having no communication whatever with one another. Perhaps such a plan of constructing the several departments would be less difficult in practice than it may in contemplation appear. Some difficulties, however, and some additional expense would attend the execution of it. Some deviations, therefore, from the principle must be admitted. In the constitution of the judiciary department in particular, it might be inexpedient to insist rigorously on the principle: first, because peculiar qualifications being essential in the members, the primary consideration ought to be to select that mode of choice which best secures these qualifications; secondly, because the permanent tenure by which the appointments are held in that department, must soon destroy all sense of dependence on the authority conferring them. It is equally evident, that the members of each department should be as little dependent as possible on those of the others, for the emoluments annexed to their offices. Were the executive magistrate, or the judges, not independent of the legislature in this particular, their independence in every other would be merely nominal. But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department the necessary constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the others. The provision for defense must in this, as in all other cases, be made commensurate to the danger of attack. Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place. It may be a reflection on human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions. This policy of supplying, by opposite and rival interests, the defect of better motives, might be traced through the whole system of human affairs, private as well as public. We see it particularly displayed in all the subordinate distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each may be a check on the other that the private interest of every individual may be a sentinel over the public rights. These inventions of prudence cannot be less requisite in the distribution of the supreme powers of the State. But it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates. The remedy for this inconveniency is to divide the legislature into different branches; and to render them, by different modes of election and different principles of action, as little connected with each other as the nature of their common functions and their common dependence on the society will admit. It may even be necessary to guard against dangerous encroachments by still further precautions. As the weight of the legislative authority requires that it should be thus divided, the weakness of the executive may require, on the other hand, that it should be fortified. An absolute negative on the legislature appears, at first view, to be the natural defense with which the executive magistrate should be armed. But perhaps it would be neither altogether safe nor alone sufficient. On ordinary occasions it might not be exerted with the requisite firmness, and on extraordinary occasions it might be perfidiously abused. May not this defect of an absolute negative be supplied by some qualified connection between this weaker department and the weaker branch of the stronger department, by which the latter may be led to support the constitutional rights of the former, without being too much detached from the rights of its own department? If the principles on which these observations are founded be just, as I persuade myself they are, and they be applied as a criterion to the several State constitutions, and to the federal Constitution it will be found that if the latter does not perfectly correspond with them, the former are infinitely less able to bear such a test. There are, moreover, two considerations particularly applicable to the federal system of America, which place that system in a very interesting point of view. First. In a single republic, all the power surrendered by the people is submitted to the administration of a single government; and the usurpations are guarded against by a division of the government into distinct and separate departments. In the compound republic of America, the power surrendered by the people is first divided between two distinct governments, and then the portion allotted to each subdivided among distinct and separate departments. Hence a double security arises to the rights of the people. The different governments will control each other, at the same time that each will be controlled by itself. Second. It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part. Different interests necessarily exist in different classes of citizens. If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights of the minority will be insecure. There are but two methods of providing against this evil: the one by creating a will in the community independent of the majority that is, of the society itself; the other, by comprehending in the society so many separate descriptions of citizens as will render an unjust combination of a majority of the whole very improbable, if not impracticable. The first method prevails in all governments possessing an hereditary or self-appointed authority. This, at best, is but a precarious security; because a power independent of the society may as well espouse the unjust views of the major, as the rightful interests of the minor party, and may possibly be turned against both parties. The second method will be exemplified in the federal republic of the United States. Whilst all authority in it will be derived from and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken into so many parts, interests, and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals, or of the minority, will be in little danger from interested combinations of the majority. In a free government the security for civil rights must be the same as that for religious rights. It consists in the one case in the multiplicity of interests, and in the other in the multiplicity of sects. The degree of security in both cases will depend on the number of interests and sects; and this may be presumed to depend on the extent of country and number of people comprehended under the same government. This view of the subject must particularly recommend a proper federal system to all the sincere and considerate friends of republican government, since it shows that in exact proportion as the territory of the Union may be formed into more circumscribed Confederacies, or States oppressive combinations of a majority will be facilitated: the best security, under the republican forms, for the rights of every class of citizens, will be diminished: and consequently the stability and independence of some member of the government, the only other security, must be proportionately increased. Justice is the end of government. It is the end of civil society. It ever has been and ever will be pursued until it be obtained, or until liberty be lost in the pursuit. In a society under the forms of which the stronger faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarchy may as truly be said to reign as in a state of nature, where the weaker individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger; and as, in the latter state, even the stronger individuals are prompted, by the uncertainty of their condition, to submit to a government which may protect the weak as well as themselves; so, in the former state, will the more powerful factions or parties be gradnally induced, by a like motive, to wish for a government which will protect all parties, the weaker as well as the more powerful. It can be little doubted that if the State of Rhode Island was separated from the Confederacy and left to itself, the insecurity of rights under the popular form of government within such narrow limits would be displayed by such reiterated oppressions of factious majorities that some power altogether independent of the people would soon be called for by the voice of the very factions whose misrule had proved the necessity of it. In the extended republic of the United States, and among the great variety of interests, parties, and sects which it embraces, a coalition of a majority of the whole society could seldom take place on any other principles than those of justice and the general good; whilst there being thus less danger to a minor from the will of a major party, there must be less pretext, also, to provide for the security of the former, by introducing into the government a will not dependent on the latter, or, in other words, a will independent of the society itself. It is no less certain than it is important, notwithstanding the contrary opinions which have been entertained, that the larger the society, provided it lie within a practical sphere, the more duly capable it will be of self-government. And happily for the REPUBLICAN CAUSE, the practicable sphere may be carried to a very great extent, by a judicious modification and mixture of the FEDERAL PRINCIPLE. PUBLIUS.

Model

Model responses comparing two writers' perspectives

Model paragraphs about Act 2, Scene 1 of 'A Midsummer Night's Dream'

Related quizzes

Related quizzes