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Mono and di and tri protic acid
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Mono and Dihybrid CrossesGreek and latin root meaning of mono and chrome, monologue, monotheistic, monorail, monotone, monogamy, chromatic, chromosome, chromatist, chromalogy, chromamono(things) and tabemonoWord origin and roots mono, chrome, neon, spirit CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of about one carbon atom to two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom. The number of carbon atoms in a carbohydrate varies. Some carbohydrates serve as a source of energy. Other carbohydrates are used as structural materials. Carbohydrates can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides A monomer of a carbohydrate is called a monosaccharide (MAHN-oh-SAK-uh-RIED). A monosaccharideâor simple sugarâ contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. The gen- eral formula for a monosaccharide is written as (CH2O)n, where n is any whole number from 3 to 8. For example, a six-carbon mono- saccharide, (CH2O)6, would have the formula C6H12O6. The most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose, as shown in Figure 3-6. Glucose is a main source of energy for cells. Fructose is found in fruits and is the sweetest of the monosaccharides. Galactose is found in milk. Notice in Figure 3-6 that glucose, fructose, and galactose have the same molecular formula, C6H12O6, but differing structures. The different structures determine the slightly different properties of the three compounds. Compounds like these sugars, with a single chemical formula but different structural forms, are called isomers (IE-soh-muhrz). SECTION 2 OBJECTIVES â Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. â Explain the relationship between amino acids and protein structure. â Describe the induced fit model of enzyme action. â Compare the structure and function of each of the different types of lipids. â Compare the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. VOCABULARY carbohydrate monosaccharide disaccharide polysaccharide protein amino acid peptide bond polypeptide enzyme substrate active site lipid fatty acid phospholipid wax steroid nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ribonucleic acid (RNA) nucleotide C HO H C H OH C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Glucose C OH C O H OH C OH H CH2OH C H CH2OH Fructose C H HO C OH H C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Galactose Glucose, fructose, and galactose have the same chemical formula, but their structural differences result in different properties among the three compounds. FIGURE 3-6 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 56 CHAPTER 3 Disaccharides and Polysaccharides In living things, two monosaccharides can combine in a condensa- tion reaction to form a double sugar, or disaccharide (die-SAK-e-RIED). For example in Figure 3-4, the monosaccharides fructose and glu- cose can combine to form the disaccharide sucrose. A polysaccharide is a complex molecule composed of three or more monosaccharides. Animals store glucose in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen. Glycogen consists of hundreds of glucose molecules strung together in a highly branched chain. Much of the glucose that comes from food is ultimately stored in your liver and muscles as glycogen and is ready to be used for quick energy. Plants store glucose molecules in the form of the polysaccha- ride starch. Starch molecules have two basic formsâhighly branched chains that are similar to glycogen and long, coiled, unbranched chains. Plants also make a large polysaccharide called cellulose. Cellulose, which gives strength and rigidity to plant cells, makes up about 50 percent of wood. In a single cellu- lose molecule, thousands of glucose monomers are linked in long, straight chains. These chains tend to form hydrogen bonds with each other. The resulting structure is strong and can be broken down by hydrolysis only under certain conditions. PROTEINS Proteins are organic compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Like most of the other biological macromolecules, proteins are formed from the linkage of monomers called amino acids. Hair and horns, as shown in Figure 3-7a, are made mostly of proteins, as are skin, muscles and many biological catalysts (enzymes). Amino Acids There are 20 different amino acids, and all share a basic structure. As Figure 3-7b shows, each amino acid contains a central carbon atom covalently bonded to four other atoms or functional groups. A single hydrogen atom, highlighted in blue in the illustration, bonds at one site. A carboxyl group, âCOOH, highlighted in green, bonds at a second site. An amino group, âNH2, highlighted in yel- low, bonds at a third site. A side chain called the R group, high- lighted in red, bonds at the fourth site. The main difference among the different amino acids is in their R groups. The R group can be complex or it can be simple, such as the CH3 group shown in the amino acid alanine in Figure 3-7b. The differences among the amino acid R groups gives different proteins very different shapes. The different shapes allow pro- teins to carry out many different activities in living things. Amino acids are commonly shown in a simplified way such as balls, as shown in Figure 3-7c. (a) Many structures, such as hair and horns are made of proteins. (b) Proteins are made up of amino acids. Amino acids differ only in the type of R group (shown in red) they carry. Polar R groups can dissolve in water, but nonpolar R groups cannot. (c) Amino acids have complex structures, so, in this and other textbooks, they are often simplified into balls. FIGURE 3-7 (b) Alanine (an amino acid) (c) Simplified version of amino acid CH3 H N OH C C H O H (a) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. BIOCHEMISTRY 57 H H N C C OH H O H CH3 H2O Glycine Alanine H N OH C C H O H H H N C C H O H CH3 N OH C C H O H (a) (b) (a) The peptide bond (shaded blue) that binds amino acids together to form a polypeptide results from a condensation reaction that produces water. (b) Poly- peptides are commonly shown as a string of balls in this textbook and elsewhere. Each ball represents an amino acid. FIGURE 3-8 Substrate Products Enzyme 1 2 3 In the induced fit model of enzyme action, the enzyme can attach only to a substrate (reactant) with a specific shape. The enzyme then changes and reduces the activation energy of the reaction so reactants can become products. The enzyme is unchanged and is available to be used again. 3 2 1 FIGURE 3-9 Dipeptides and Polypeptides Figure 3-8a shows how two amino acids bond to form a dipeptide (die-PEP-TIED). In this condensation reaction, the two amino acids form a covalent bond, called a peptide bond (shaded in blue in Figure 3-8a) and release a water molecule. Amino acids often form very long chains called polypeptides (PAHL-i-PEP-TIEDZ). Proteins are composed of one or more polypep- tides. Some proteins are very large molecules, containing hun- dreds of amino acids. Often, these long proteins are bent and folded upon themselves as a result of interactionsâsuch as hydrogen bondingâbetween individual amino acids. Protein shape can also be influenced by conditions such as temperature and the type of solvent in which a protein is dissolved. For exam- ple, cooking an egg changes the shape of proteins in the egg white. The firm, opaque result is very different from the initial clear, runny material. Enzymes EnzymesâRNA or protein molecules that act as biological catalystsâare essential for the functioning of any cell. Many enzymes are proteins. Figure 3-9 shows an induced fit model of enzyme action. Enzyme reactions depend on a physical fit between the enzyme molecule and its specific substrate, the reactant being catalyzed. Notice that the enzyme has folds, or an active site, with a shape that allows the substrate to fit into the active site. An enzyme acts only on a specific substrate because only that substrate fits into its active site. The linkage of the enzyme and substrate causes a slight change in the enzymeâs shape. The change in the enzymeâs shape weakens some chemical bonds in the substrate, which is one way that enzymes reduce activation energy, the energy needed to start the reaction. After the reaction, the enzyme releases the products. Like any catalyst, the enzyme itself is unchanged, so it can be used many times. An enzyme may not work if its environment is changed. For example, change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the shape of the enzyme or the substrate. If such a change happens, the reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot occur.LARGE CARBON MOLECULES Many carbon compounds are built up from smaller, simpler molecules known as monomers (MAH-ne-mers), such as the ones shown in Figure 3-3. As you can also see in Figure 3-3, monomers can bond to one another to form polymers (PAWL-eh-mer). A polymer is a molecule that consists of repeated, linked units. The units may be identical or structurally related to each other. Large polymers are called macromolecules. There are many types of macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Monomers link to form polymers through a chemical reaction called a condensation reaction. Each time a monomer is added to a polymer, a water molecule is released. In the condensation reac- tion shown in Figure 3-4, two sugar molecules, glucose and fruc- tose, combine to form the sugar sucrose, which is common table sugar. The two sugar monomers become linked by a CâOâC bridge. In the formation of that bridge, the glucose molecule releases a hydrogen ion, H, and the fructose molecule releases a hydroxide ion, OH. The OH and H ions that are released then combine to produce a water molecule, H2O. In addition to building polymers through condensation reac- tions, living organisms also have to break them down. The break- down of some complex molecules, such as polymers, occurs through a process known as hydrolysis (hie-DRAHL-i-sis). In a hydrolysis reaction, water is used to break down a polymer. The water molecule breaks the bond linking each monomer. Hydrolysis is the reverse of a condensation reaction. The addition of water to some complex molecules, including polymers, under certain con- ditions can break the bonds that hold them together. For example, in Figure 3-4 reversing the reaction will result in sucrose breaking down into fructose and glucose. 2H2O Monomers Polymer C C O H OH C OH H CH2OH C H CH2OH C HO H C O H C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Sucrose C C O H OH C OH H CH2OH C H CH2OH C HO H C OH OH H C OH H C CH2OH H C H OH O Glucose Fructose H2O The condensation reaction below shows how glucose links with fructose to form sucrose. One water molecule is produced each time two monomers form a covalent bond. FIGURE 3-4 monomer from the Greek mono, meaning âsingle or alone,â and meros, meaning âa partâ Word Roots and Origins A polymer is the result of bonding between monomers. In this example, each monomer is a six-sided carbon ring. The starch in potatoes is an example of a molecule that is a polymer. FIGURE 3-3 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 54 CHAPTER 3 ENERGY CURRENCY Life processes require a constant supply of energy. This energy is available to cells in the form of certain compounds that store a large amount of energy in their overall structure. One of these com- pounds is adenosine (uh-DEN-uh-SEEN) triphosphate, more commonly referred to by its abbreviation, ATP. The left side of Figure 3-5 shows a simplified ATP molecule struc- ture. The 5-carbon sugar, ribose, is represented by the blue carbon ring. The nitrogen-containing compound, adenine, is represented by the 2 orange rings. The three linked phosphate groups, âPO4 , are represented by the blue circles with a âP.â The phospate groups are attached to each other by covalent bonds. The covalent bonds between the phosphate groups are more unstable than the other bonds in the ATP molecule because the phosphate groups are close together and have negative charges. Thus, the negative charges make the bonds easier to break. When a bond between the phosphate groups is broken, energy is released. This hydrolysis of ATP is used by the cell to provide the energy needed to drive the chemical reactions that enable an organism to function.Mono hybrid Punnett SquaresMono-mĂos