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Norma-norma yang berlaku di masyarakat
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Salah satu nilai yang tercermin dalam Norma Kesopanan adalah ....
Aturan yang datang atau bersumber dari hati nurani manusia tentang baik buruknya suatu perbuatan yaitu ....
Menerima dengan tangan kanan dan tidak meludah di sembarang tempat merupakan contoh perilaku sesuai nilai ....
Setiap bangsa atau negara yang telah merdeka pastilah akan merumuskan sebuah konstitusi atau ….
Sikap bangsa Indonesia yang menolak segala bentuk penjajahan ditegaskan dalam ….
Jenis-jenis Norma yang Berlaku di Masyarakat - Starter QuizDibawah ini yang termasuk sebab terjadinya pelanggaran norma adalah?1. Apa yang dimaksud dengan prinsip penilaian dalam pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Penentuan standar minimal kelulusan siswa B. Pendekatan yang digunakan untuk mengukur hasil belajar siswa C. Dasar-dasar yang harus dipenuhi dalam melaksanakan penilaian secara adil dan efektif D. Metode yang digunakan guru untuk memberikan tugas kepada siswa Jawaban: C 2. Salah satu prinsip penting dalam penilaian adalah "keseluruhan." Prinsip ini berarti bahwa penilaian harus: A. Dilakukan di akhir periode pembelajaran B. Melibatkan semua aspek yang dipelajari siswa, baik kognitif, afektif, maupun psikomotor C. Hanya mengukur pengetahuan dasar siswa D. Mengutamakan penilaian sikap dan perilaku siswa Jawaban: B 3. Prinsip "objektivitas" dalam penilaian mengacu pada: A. Menggunakan alat penilaian yang tepat dan relevan dengan materi pembelajaran B. Memberikan nilai berdasarkan hasil yang nyata tanpa dipengaruhi faktor lain seperti preferensi pribadi C. Melibatkan seluruh aspek pembelajaran dalam proses penilaian D. Menilai kemampuan siswa secara subyektif sesuai dengan kondisi kelas Jawaban: B 4. Manakah dari berikut ini yang merupakan salah satu prinsip penilaian yang baik dalam pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Penilaian bersifat subyektif sesuai keinginan guru B. Penilaian dilakukan hanya berdasarkan satu aspek keterampilan siswa C. Penilaian dilakukan secara berkelanjutan untuk memantau perkembangan siswa D. Penilaian hanya dilakukan pada akhir semester Jawaban: C 5. Apa yang dimaksud dengan acuan penilaian dalam konteks pembelajaran Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia? A. Sistem yang digunakan untuk memberikan umpan balik kepada siswa B. Kriteria atau standar yang digunakan untuk menentukan tingkat pencapaian siswa C. Teknik mengajar yang diterapkan selama proses pembelajaran D. Metode evaluasi lisan dalam menilai kemampuan berbicara siswa Jawaban: B 6. Acuan penilaian yang menggunakan kriteria tertentu sebagai patokan disebut: A. Acuan norma B. Acuan kriteria C. Acuan standar D. Acuan individual Jawaban: B 7. Penilaian yang membandingkan hasil belajar siswa dengan hasil belajar siswa lain dalam satu kelompok disebut: A. Penilaian berbasis kriteria B. Penilaian sumatif C. Penilaian berbasis norma D. Penilaian formatif Jawaban: C 8. Acuan kriteria dalam penilaian berarti bahwa penilaian: A. Menggunakan hasil belajar siswa lain sebagai standar B. Membandingkan pencapaian siswa dengan standar atau tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditentukan C. Hanya menilai aspek kognitif siswa D. Dilakukan secara acak tanpa kriteria tertentu Jawaban: B 9. Prinsip "validitas" dalam penilaian berarti bahwa: A. Instrumen penilaian mengukur apa yang seharusnya diukur B. Penilaian dilakukan berdasarkan standar yang berubah-ubah C. Penilaian dilakukan hanya sekali dalam satu periode belajar D. Hasil penilaian dapat direplikasi oleh guru lain Jawaban: A 10. Salah satu contoh penerapan acuan kriteria dalam penilaian Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia adalah: A. Membandingkan nilai siswa dengan nilai rata-rata kelas B. Menggunakan rubrik penilaian untuk menilai esai siswa berdasarkan standar tertentu C. Memberikan nilai berdasarkan partisipasi siswa selama pembelajaran D. Memberikan nilai akhir berdasarkan intuisi guru Jawaban: B Semoga soal-soal ini sesuai dengan kebutuhan Anda! Apakah ada peGangguan pada Sistem Sirkulasi Manusia Sistem sirkulasi berfungsi mengedarkan darah, oksigen, dan zat makanan ke seluruh tubuh serta mengangkut sisa metabolisme. Jika sistem ini terganggu, tubuh bisa cepat lelah, sakit, bahkan berbahaya. Berikut gangguan-gangguannya: 1. Anemia Anemia, yaitu keadaan di mana jumlah eritrosit di dalam hemoglobin di bawah batas normal. Artinya: Anemia adalah kondisi ketika sel darah merah atau hemoglobin dalam tubuh kurang, sehingga darah tidak mampu membawa oksigen dengan baik ke seluruh tubuh. Akibatnya: Penderita anemia mudah lelah, pusing, lemas, dan terlihat pucat karena tubuh kekurangan oksigen. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Seseorang cepat capek saat beraktivitas, mudah mengantuk di sekolah, dan merasa lemas meskipun tidak melakukan aktivitas berat. 2. Hemofilia Hemofilia adalah kelainan yang ditandai dengan sulitnya darah untuk membeku. Penyakit keturunan ini disebabkan oleh defisiensi faktor pembekuan darah. Artinya: Hemofilia merupakan penyakit bawaan yang menyebabkan darah sulit berhenti ketika terjadi luka. Akibatnya: Luka kecil dapat menyebabkan perdarahan yang lama dan berisiko berbahaya jika tidak ditangani. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Saat penderita tergores atau jatuh, darah keluar lebih lama dibandingkan orang normal meskipun lukanya kecil. 3. Talasemia Talasemia adalah kelainan pada bentuk eritrosit. Akibatnya, eritrosit di dalam tubuh penderita akan mudah rusak, rapuh, dan kurang optimal dalam mengikat oksigen. Artinya: Talasemia merupakan penyakit keturunan yang memengaruhi bentuk dan fungsi sel darah merah. Akibatnya: Tubuh menjadi cepat lelah, pertumbuhan terganggu, dan penderita sering membutuhkan transfusi darah. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Anak dengan talasemia terlihat kurang aktif dan harus rutin memeriksakan diri ke rumah sakit. 4. Hipotensi (Tekanan darah rendah) Hipotensi adalah keadaan di mana tekanan darah arteri menurun sampai di bawah batas normal, misalnya 90/60 mmHg untuk sistol/diastol. Artinya: Hipotensi adalah kondisi tekanan darah terlalu rendah. Akibatnya: Penderita dapat mengalami pusing, lemas, dan bahkan pingsan. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Seseorang merasa pusing saat berdiri terlalu cepat setelah duduk atau berbaring. 5. Hipertensi (Tekanan darah tinggi) Hipertensi adalah keadaan di mana tekanan darah arteri meningkat sampai di atas normal, misalnya 140/90 mmHg. Keadaan ini bisa disebut tekanan darah tinggi. Artinya: Hipertensi adalah kondisi tekanan darah lebih tinggi dari batas normal. Akibatnya: Dapat menyebabkan sakit kepala, gangguan jantung, stroke, dan kerusakan pembuluh darah jika tidak dikontrol. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Orang yang sering makan makanan asin, jarang berolahraga, dan sering stres lebih berisiko mengalami hipertensi. 6. Trombus Trombus adalah kelainan di mana terdapat gumpalan darah yang menyumbat pembuluh darah. Artinya: Trombus adalah penggumpalan darah yang menghambat aliran darah di dalam pembuluh. Akibatnya: Aliran darah menjadi tidak lancar dan dapat menyebabkan kerusakan organ. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Orang yang duduk terlalu lama tanpa bergerak berisiko mengalami penggumpalan darah di kaki. 7. Varises Varises adalah kelainan yang disebabkan oleh pelebaran pembuluh vena. Pelebaran biasa terjadi di anggota tubuh bagian bawah, contohnya betis. Artinya: Varises terjadi ketika pembuluh darah vena melebar karena aliran darah tidak lancar. Akibatnya: Kaki terasa pegal, berat, dan pembuluh darah tampak menonjol. Contoh dalam kehidupan sehari-hari: Sering dialami oleh orang yang berdiri terlalu lama seperti guru, pedagang, atau perawat.MATERI PERKULIAHAN Sub-CPMK 1.7 Mampu menghitung performa produksi (IP, FCR) dan melakukan Analisis Usaha Broiler per satu siklus produksi 1. IDENTITAS MATERI Mata Kuliah : Produksi Ternak Potong Unggas Komersil Pokok Bahasan : Evaluasi Performa Produksi dan Analisis Usaha Broiler Sub-CPMK : 1.7 Capaian Pembelajaran : Mahasiswa mampu: Menjelaskan parameter performa produksi broiler. Menghitung Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR). Menghitung Indeks Performa (IP). Menganalisis hasil performa produksi dalam satu siklus pemeliharaan. Menyusun analisis usaha broiler per satu siklus produksi. Menarik kesimpulan kelayakan usaha berdasarkan hasil teknis dan ekonomis. ________________________________________ 2. TUJUAN PEMBELAJARAN Setelah mengikuti perkuliahan ini, mahasiswa diharapkan mampu: Memahami konsep dasar evaluasi performa broiler. Mengidentifikasi data teknis yang dibutuhkan dalam perhitungan performa. Menghitung mortalitas, deplesi, bobot badan rata-rata, FCR, dan IP. Menghitung biaya produksi, penerimaan, keuntungan, dan efisiensi usaha broiler. Menganalisis hubungan antara performa teknis dengan hasil ekonomi usaha. ________________________________________ 3. DESKRIPSI MATERI Dalam usaha broiler modern, keberhasilan produksi tidak hanya diukur dari bobot panen, tetapi juga dari efisiensi penggunaan pakan, tingkat kematian, umur panen, serta keuntungan yang diperoleh per siklus. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan kemampuan untuk menghitung parameter teknis produksi seperti FCR dan IP, serta mengaitkannya dengan analisis usaha agar dapat diketahui apakah usaha berjalan efisien dan menguntungkan. ________________________________________ 4. POKOK-POKOK MATERI A. Konsep Dasar Evaluasi Performa Produksi Broiler 1. Pengertian Performa Produksi Performa produksi broiler adalah gambaran tingkat keberhasilan pemeliharaan ayam broiler selama satu periode/siklus pemeliharaan yang dinilai dari indikator teknis tertentu. 2. Parameter Utama Performa Produksi Parameter yang umum digunakan meliputi: Populasi awal DOC Jumlah ayam hidup saat panen Mortalitas (%) Deplesi (%) Umur panen (hari) Bobot badan rata-rata panen (kg/ekor) Total konsumsi pakan (kg) Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) Indeks Performa (IP) ________________________________________ B. Parameter Teknis dan Rumus Perhitungan ________________________________________ 1. Mortalitas (%) Pengertian: Persentase ayam yang mati selama masa pemeliharaan. Rumus: "Mortalitas (%)"="Jumlah ayam mati" /"Populasi awal" ×100 Contoh: Populasi awal = 5.000 ekor Ayam mati = 150 ekor "Mortalitas"=150/5000×100=3% ________________________________________ 2. Deplesi (%) Pengertian: Persentase pengurangan populasi akibat kematian dan afkir/culling. Rumus: "Deplesi (%)"="Ayam mati + ayam afkir" /"Populasi awal" ×100 Jika tidak ada afkir, maka deplesi = mortalitas. ________________________________________ 3. Persentase Ayam Hidup / Livability (%) Rumus: "Livability (%)"="Jumlah ayam panen" /"Populasi awal" ×100 atau "Livability (%)"=100-"Deplesi (%)" ________________________________________ 4. Bobot Badan Rata-Rata Panen Rumus: "Bobot rata-rata (kg/ekor)"="Total bobot panen (kg)" /"Jumlah ayam panen (ekor)" ________________________________________ 5. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) Pengertian: FCR adalah rasio jumlah pakan yang dikonsumsi terhadap pertambahan bobot hidup atau bobot hidup yang dihasilkan. Rumus praktis broiler: "FCR"="Total konsumsi pakan (kg)" /"Total bobot hidup panen (kg)" Interpretasi: Semakin rendah nilai FCR, semakin efisien penggunaan pakan. Contoh: Total pakan = 16.000 kg Total bobot panen = 9.600 kg "FCR"=16.000/9.600=1,67 Interpretasi: Untuk menghasilkan 1 kg bobot hidup, dibutuhkan 1,67 kg pakan. ________________________________________ 6. Indeks Performa (IP) Pengertian: IP adalah indikator gabungan untuk menilai performa pemeliharaan broiler berdasarkan: daya hidup, bobot badan, umur panen, efisiensi pakan. Rumus umum IP: "IP"=("Livability (%)" ×"Bobot rata-rata (kg)" )/("Umur panen (hari)" ×"FCR" )×100 Contoh: Livability = 97% Bobot rata-rata = 2,0 kg Umur panen = 35 hari FCR = 1,67 "IP"=(97×2,0)/(35×1,67)×100 "IP"=194/58,45×100=331,9 Jadi, IP = 331,9 ________________________________________ C. Interpretasi Nilai FCR dan IP 1. Interpretasi FCR < 1,50 = sangat efisien 1,50 – 1,65 = efisien/baik 1,66 – 1,80 = cukup > 1,80 = kurang efisien Catatan: Nilai ini dapat berbeda tergantung strain, umur panen, sistem kandang, musim, dan standar perusahaan. ________________________________________ 2. Interpretasi IP (umum) > 400 = sangat baik / ممتاز 351 – 400 = baik 301 – 350 = cukup baik 251 – 300 = sedang < 250 = kurang Dalam praktik kemitraan, IP sering menjadi dasar evaluasi bonus performa. ________________________________________ 5. HUBUNGAN PARAMETER TEKNIS DENGAN KINERJA USAHA Performa teknis sangat menentukan keuntungan usaha broiler: FCR naik → biaya pakan meningkat → laba turun Mortalitas naik → ayam panen berkurang → penerimaan turun Bobot panen rendah → total kg jual turun → omzet turun Umur panen terlalu lama → biaya operasional naik → efisiensi turun IP tinggi → menunjukkan usaha lebih efisien dan berpotensi lebih menguntungkan ________________________________________ 6. ANALISIS USAHA BROILER PER SATU SIKLUS PRODUKSI A. Pengertian Analisis Usaha Analisis usaha broiler adalah perhitungan ekonomi untuk mengetahui: total biaya produksi, total penerimaan, pendapatan/keuntungan, efisiensi usaha, kelayakan usaha per satu siklus pemeliharaan. ________________________________________ B. Komponen Biaya Produksi 1. Biaya Tetap (Fixed Cost) Biaya yang relatif tidak berubah dalam satu siklus, misalnya: Penyusutan kandang Penyusutan peralatan Pajak/sewa lahan (jika dihitung) Bunga modal tetap (opsional) 2. Biaya Variabel (Variable Cost) Biaya yang berubah sesuai jumlah populasi, misalnya: DOC Pakan Obat, vitamin, vaksin (OVK) Sekam/litter Gas/LPG/bahan bakar brooder Listrik dan air Tenaga kerja Desinfektan dan sanitasi Biaya panen/angkut Biaya lain-lain operasional Catatan penting: Pada usaha broiler, pakan biasanya menyumbang 60–70% dari total biaya produksi. ________________________________________ 7. RUMUS ANALISIS USAHA 1. Total Biaya Produksi (TC) "TC"="Biaya Tetap"+"Biaya Variabel" ________________________________________ 2. Total Penerimaan (TR) Jika dijual berdasarkan bobot hidup: "TR"="Total bobot panen (kg)"×"Harga jual per kg" Jika ada penerimaan tambahan: "TR total"="Penjualan ayam"+"Penjualan kotoran"+"Penjualan karung pakan/bekas" ________________________________________ 3. Keuntungan / Pendapatan (π) π="TR"-"TC" ________________________________________ 4. R/C Ratio R/C="TR" /"TC" Kriteria: R/C > 1 → usaha menguntungkan R/C = 1 → impas R/C < 1 → usaha merugi ________________________________________ 5. B/C Ratio (opsional) B/C=("TR" -"TC" )/"TC" ________________________________________ 6. Harga Pokok Produksi (HPP) "HPP per kg"="Total biaya produksi" /"Total bobot panen (kg)" Interpretasi: Jika harga jual > HPP → usaha berpotensi untung. FAKTOR-FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI FCR, IP, DAN KEUNTUNGAN A. Faktor Teknis Kualitas DOC Mutu pakan Program brooding Kepadatan kandang Ventilasi dan suhu kandang Kualitas air minum Program vaksinasi dan biosekuriti Manajemen litter Ketepatan waktu panen B. Faktor Ekonomi Harga DOC Harga pakan Harga jual ayam hidup Biaya tenaga kerja Biaya energi (gas/listrik) Sistem usaha (mandiri vs kemitraan) STRATEGI MENINGKATKAN PERFORMA DAN KEUNTUNGAN Gunakan DOC berkualitas dan seragam Laksanakan brooding secara optimal (0–14 hari sangat krusial) Pastikan feed intake dan water intake normal Terapkan biosekuriti ketat Kurangi feed wastage Pantau bobot badan mingguan Lakukan culling selektif Tentukan umur panen berdasarkan kombinasi FCR, bobot, dan harga pasar Evaluasi performa tiap siklus dengan pencatatan lengkap Gunakan data historis untuk perbaikan keputusan produksi RANGKUMAN MATERI FCR menunjukkan efisiensi penggunaan pakan. Semakin kecil FCR, semakin baik. IP adalah indikator gabungan performa broiler yang mempertimbangkan: daya hidup, bobot panen, umur panen, efisiensi pakan. Analisis usaha broiler harus mengintegrasikan: aspek teknis (FCR, IP, mortalitas, bobot panen) aspek ekonomi (biaya, penerimaan, laba, R/C, HPP) Usaha broiler dinilai baik apabila: FCR efisien, mortalitas rendah, IP tinggi, HPP lebih rendah dari harga jual, R/C ratio > 1. PENUTUP Kemampuan menghitung FCR, IP, dan melakukan analisis usaha broiler per satu siklus produksi merupakan kompetensi penting dalam manajemen produksi broiler modern. Mahasiswa tidak hanya dituntut memahami teori, tetapi juga harus mampu membaca data produksi, melakukan perhitungan secara akurat, dan mengambil keputusan manajerial berbasis hasil analisis teknis-ekonomis. REFERENSI SINGKAT (untuk bahan ajar/RPS) North, M.O., & Bell, D.D. Commercial Chicken Production Manual. Leeson, S., & Summers, J.D. Commercial Poultry Nutrition. Bell, D.D., & Weaver, W.D. Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production. Saputra, dkk. Literatur manajemen broiler modern dan analisis usaha ternak unggas. Standar teknis perusahaan integrator/kemitraan broiler (CP, Japfa, Malindo, dll.) untuk benchmarking FCR dan IP. Received: 26 November 2019 Revised: 10 January 2020 Accepted: 19 January 2020 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13005 PEDIATRICS/PHYSIOLOGY Adipokines: A gear shift in puberty Desirée Nieuwenhuis | Natàlia Pujol-Gualdo Amanda J. Kiliaan Department of Anatomy, Radboud university medical center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Preclinical Imaging Center PRIME, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Correspondence Amanda J. Kiliaan, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Anatomy, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Preclinical Imaging Center PRIME, Radboud university medical center, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Geert Grooteplein 21N 6525 EZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Email: amanda.kiliaan@radboudumc.nl Funding information Europees Fonds voor Regionale Ontwikkeling (EFRO), Grant/Award Number: BriteN 2016 1 | INTRODUCTION The prevalence of obesity in adolescents and children is increasing in | Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen | Summary In this review, we discuss the role of adipokines in the onset of puberty in children with obesity during adrenarche and gonadarche and provide a clear and detailed overview of the biological processes of two major players, leptin and adiponectin. Adipokines, especially leptin and adiponectin, seem to induce an early onset of puberty in girls and boys with obesity by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary- gonadal (HPG) axis. Moreover, adipokines and their receptors are expressed in the gonads, suggesting a role in sexual maturation and reproduction. All in all, adipokines may be a clue in understanding mechanisms underlying the onset of puberty in child- hood obesity and puberty onset variability. KEYWORDS adipokines, obesity, puberty 1,2 the age of 5 years were overweight or were with obesity in 2016, and 3 Obesity is defined by an excessive accumulation of white adipose tissue (WAT), and it is often indicated by a body mass index (BMI) 4 above 30. Two main types of adipose tissue were described: WAT and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which differ in morphology and func- 5-7 Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen and Amanda J. Kiliaan contributed equally to this work. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2020 The Authors. Obesity Reviews published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of World Obesity Federation Obesity Reviews. 2020;21:e13005. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/obr 1 of 10 https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13005 alarming rates. Specifically, worldwide, 41 million children below this number is expected to increase to 70 million in 2025. obesity is associated with various severe health complications, includ- ing increased risk of diabetes mellitus type 2, hypertension, heart dis- eases, and disturbances in sex hormone levels. 5,6 and mitochondria and plays a role in thermogenesis. Adipocytes in tion. BAT consists of adipocytes containing multiple lipid droplets WAT contain only a few mitochondria and a single lipid droplet. Adipose tissue has several functions including the storage of energy, thermogenesis, and the production and secretion of adipokines Generally, two physiological processes, adrenarche and gonadarche, 11,24 Childhood 5,7,8 a key role in puberty onset. Puberty is known as a period through which the body changes physically, being a physiological process resulting in the maturation of children, i.e. they develop sexual characteristics and obtain reproduc- 9,11 Adipokines are involved in a number of physiological processes including blood pressure, metabo- lism, glucose, and vascular homeostasis and may play amongst others 8-10 (hormones, cytokines, and peptides). tive functions. between obesity and puberty,2,12-23 the biological mechanisms under- lying obesity and puberty onset remain unclear. Hereafter, we review in detail the role of adipokines in the onset of puberty in childhood obesity. Although many studies have shown associations 2 | INITIATION OF PUBERTY PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE interact to regulate the onset of puberty. During adrenarche, the adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones (including 2 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), androstenedione, and cortisol), insulin-like growth factor, and growth hormone, which contribute to the pubertal insights on new genetic loci (e.g. melanocortin-4 receptor, mitochon- drial carrier 2, and mitogen-activated protein kinase 13) and on sev- eral pathways that regulate the timing of puberty; however, it partly 34 9,24,25 Both adrenarche and gonadarche are involved in the development growth spurt, body odor, skin oiliness, and skeletal maturation. explains puberty timing variation. Thereby, defining the role of 25 adipokines is of importance in elucidating the variability in puberty as the expression of adipokines is sex-specific and is altered with body composition, adiposity, and during growth spurts. Moreover, adipokines and their receptors are expressed in gonads and several brain regions suggesting involvement in the onset of puberty and sex- ual maturation. Lastly, adipokines interfere in processes regulating timing and duration of puberty, for instance in the HPA and HPG axes which are both key players during adrenarche and gonadarche. Involvement of adipokines in the onset of puberty and specifically in individuals with obesity will be further reviewed in the next 2,24 3 | Puberty onset in girls is assessed using different markers, such as thelarche (breast development), menarche (the start of of pubic hair. pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis is activated,2,26 and several hormones have been identified to participate in the activation of the HPG axis During gonadarche (Figure 1), the hypothalamic- 2,27 Kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin are released by specialized including kisspeptin, neurokinin B, dynorphin, leptin, and ghrelin. 28 key regulator of the pulsatile secretion of gonadotropin releasing neurons, the KNDy neurons in the hypothalamus. Kisspeptin is a 29,30 B stimulates, and dynorphin inhibits the release of kisspeptin, which hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. In addition, neurokinin implies that both coordinate a pulsatile release of kisspeptin. 31 Sub- sections. sequently, the activated HPG axis induces the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). As a result, gametogenesis occurs, and the gonads will release sex hormones. Consequently, secondary sex characteristics develop including breast development in girls and an increased testicular vol- 2,26,32 is possibly due to differences in levels of body fat, hypothalamic-pitui- THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN GIRLS ume in boys. The age at puberty onset varies greatly among individuals, which 19 35 menstruation), and pubic hair development. 33 genome-wide association studies have provided important new tary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, and genetic background. Recent The average age of However, this age differs between cultures and ethnicities, and since 1980, age at menarche is girls at start of menarche is 12.4 years. 36 significantly decreasing. 36-39 F I G U R E 1 Hormonal regulation in the initiation of puberty in boys and girls. The secretion of kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin from KNDy neurons initiate the release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. This activates the pituitary gland to produce and secrete luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which in turn stimulate the gonads to produce estrogen and testosterone in girls and boys, respectively 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 3 of 10 T A B L E 1 Summary of included studies Authors Year Country Study Design Primary Outcome Sex Sample Size (n) Age (y) Data Collection Lian et al21 2019 China Cross-sectional Puberty starts earlier in Chinese Han girls with obesity compared with Chinese Han girls with normal weight. Girls 2996 9-19 2012 and 2013 Biro et al12 Lazzeri et al20 2018 USA 2018 Italy Longitudinal Cross-sectional Body mass index had a greater effect on age at menarche than did race and ethnicity. Girls 946 6-16 2004-2014 Li et al23 2018 China Longitudinal For both, boys and girls, a higher BMI (ie, overweight and obese) is associated with earlier onset of puberty Girls Girls Boys Girls 542 Deng et al22 Flom et al15 2017 China Cross-sectional Increased BMI is associated with early timing spermarche and menarche. Boys Girls Girls 1278258 9-15 2005-2012 He et al24 Holmgren et al17 2017 China 2017 Sweden Cross-sectional Longitudinal Onset of puberty is not related to obesity in boys. Boys Boys Girls Girls 782 7-17 972 929 5839 Kelly et al19 2017 UK 2016 Brazil 2016 USA Longitudinal prospective cohort Higher BMI in girls is associated with the onset of menstruation at an earlier age. 11 10-18 11-17 Barcellos Gemelli et al25 Cross-sectional Longitudinal Excess weight is associated with early age of menarche. Girls 727 2014 2003-2009 Glass et al16 Lee et al26 In girls, but not in boys, greater adiposity is associated with the earlier onset of puberty. Boys Girls 135 Cabrera et al27 Leonibus et al14 2014 USA 2013 Italy Cross-sectional Longitudinal Thelarche occurred earlier than recently reported, while age of menarche remained unchanged. Girls 610 3-17.9 2007 2005-2012 Currie et al13 2012 Europe, USA, Canada Cross-sectional Overweight/obesity during childhood predicts the early onset of puberty in girls. Girls 20410 11, 13, 15 2005-2006 2017 USA Prospective birth cohort Overweight/obese status at the age of 7 ye was associated with increased risk of early menarche 788 From birth to menarche occurred Pregnancies 1959-1966 2016 USA Cross-sectional Boys with overweight enter puberty earlier compared with boys with normal weight or obesity, while puberty starts later in boys with obesity compared with boys with normal weight and overweight. Boys 3872 6-16 2005-2010 Overweight during childhood shows a relation with the early onset of puberty in girls. 6535 4259 695 11 15 5.8-12.2 2009/2010 2013/2014 2014-2017 Higher BMI during childhood is associated with early puberty. 2008 and 2009 2000-2002 Obesity during childhood is related to the earlier onset of puberty. Boys Girls 84 123 71 (Continues) 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 4 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 3.1 | Fat storage For the initiation of puberty, the timing of stimulation and/or inhibi- tion of different hormones is important, and additionally, a certain amount and distribution of body fat is needed in order to start menar- che, which emphasizes the importance of body fat. From an evolution- ary point of view, body fat increases in mammalian females during puberty onset, and it highlights the need to guarantee a healthy preg- 40 women with anorexia nervosa. particularly body fat localized predominantly on the gluteofemoral fat depots, is profoundly associated with start of menarche, more than nancy, offspring, and maternal survival. fat, sex-hormones, and neuroendocrine alterations can evolve in men- strual dysfunction, for instance, in women with severe obesity or in 41-43 44-46 to gluteofemoral fat depots suggesting that leptin may convey infor- amount of total body fat. mation on body fat distribution to the hypothalamus during puberty. An improper level of body Importantly, body fat distribution, Blood leptin levels are strongly related 45 3.2 | HPG axis The HPG axis is activated by the release of kisspeptin resulting in the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus, and LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. In girls, FSH is involved in the development of the folli- cles in the ovaries, and it promotes the secretion of estrogen. LH stim- ulates the production of androgen hormones and induces ovulation 48 9,47 the release of kisspeptin and neurokinin B, and kisspeptin thereby (Figure 1). The secretion of estrogen has an inhibitory effect on inhibits the GnRH release from the hypothalamus. pattern of GnRH is important for the regulation of the menstrual cycle. This roughly 28-day-cycle comprises several phases, including the follicular phase and luteal phase. During the follicular phase, increasing levels of FSH stimulate the maturation of follicles and the production of estrogen from the ovaries. This in turn inhibits the release of FSH from the pituitary gland. A high level of estrogen will induce the production of LH by the pituitary gland, resulting in ovula- tion. The matured follicle secretes progesterone thereby inhibiting the release of GnRH. When the corpus luteum is demolished, there is less 48 3.3 | Adipokines According to results from studies reported in Table 1, girls with obe- sity enter puberty earlier compared with girls with normal higher leptin concentrations inhibit the intake of food and increases inhibition of GnRH. As a consequence, the cycle will start again. whole process, starting from the activated HPG axis, results in the development of the secondary sex characteristics in girls including 9,47 thelarche and menarche. 13,14,16-23,49-51 weight. these girls might be found in the secretion of adipokines. For instance, leptin is positively associated with the amount of body fat. Generally, energy expenditure. 9,52-54 An explanation for the early onset of puberty in The expression This TABLE 1 (Continued) Authors Year Country Study Design Primary Outcome Sample Sex Size (n) Age (y) Data Collection Herman-Giddens et al28 2012 USA Cross-sectional Observed mean ages of beginning genital and pubic hair growth and early testicular volumes were earlier than in past studies, depending on the characteristic and race/ethnicity. Boys 4131 6-16 2005-2010 Sorensen et al29 Aksglaede et al30 2010 2009 Denmark Denmark Cross-sectional/longitudinal Longitudinal Puberty onset at earlier ages was associated with an increased BMI in boys. Boys 1528 5.8-19.9 1991-1993/2006-2008 1930-1969 Juul et al31 Ribeiro et al32 2007 2006 Denmark Portugal Retrospective cohort Cross-sectional Higher BMI is associated with early voice break. 11-15 10-15 1990-1999 Kaplowitz et al18 Abbreviation: BMI, body mass USA Cross-sectional The early onset of puberty in Caucasian girls is likely related to an increased BMI. 5-12 1992-1993 2001 index. The higher BMI in boys and girls at 7 y of age, the earlier they enter puberty. Boys 21 612 Girls 135 223 Boys 463 Boys 382 Girls 437 Girls 10 750 Early sexual maturation in boys and girls is associated with overweight. 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 5 of 10 Leptin may possibly play a role in adrenarche as its plasma level increases with higher levels of body fat and as it can modulate both girls. 33 ing adrenarche. In coherence, in children with obesity, the androgen These findings suggested that lower reproductive status was associated with higher total adiponectin concentrations and that a higher reproductive status was related to higher HMW adiponectin the HPA and HPG axes. These axes are functionally integrated dur- DHEAS was positively associated with leptin levels. Nevertheless, concentrations in girls. In addition, individuals with obesity often another study showed that enhanced adrenal androgen secretion in girls with premature adrenarche was not explained by leptin or BMI 55 ated with androgen levels in girls ; however, it was not related to levels. and IL-6. TNF-α alters, and IL-6 inhibits the expression of 56 8 In addition, the adipokine adiponectin was negatively associ- 57 differences of adiponectin seem to develop during the progression of 56 adiponectin (Figure 2). Thereby, a low level of total adiponectin and/or high levels of inflammatory cytokines in individuals with obe- sity can promote the onset of puberty. Many more adipokines are secreted by WAT including omentin, 52,65-67 9,36,62,68 adrenarche in girls with Prader-Willi syndrome. Interestingly, sex puberty. adrenarche; however, both are not required factors. Thus, leptin and adiponectin might be able to influence In gonadarche, leptin can stimulate the secretion of kisspeptin, and subsequently activation of the HPG axis, which eventually increases the expression of estrogen and androstenedione in the ova- 58 2,60 65-67 The expression of these ries (Figure 2). Ob gene in WAT, resulting in the synthesis and secretion of leptin. Thus, high levels of leptin promote onset of puberty in girls via secre- tion of kisspeptin, and estrogen stimulates leptin secretion addition- ally. Moreover, adiponectin can affect the HPG axis due to the expression of adiponectin receptors in the hypothalamus, pituitary In return, estrogen stimulates the expression of the 59 gland, and gonads. onset as it inhibits the secretion of kisspeptin and GnRH in the hypo- thalamus and the release of GH and LH in the pituitary gland, and 2,60-62 52,60 63 girls with central precocious puberty (CPP). Moreover, total adiponectin had negative correlations with progression of puberty in girls (defined by Tanner stages), whereas HMW adiponectin had FIGURE 2 Adipokinesaffectingthe initiation of puberty in girls. Leptin stimulates the release of kisspeptin in KNDy neurons, which activates the hypothalamus to produce gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). In response to the release of GnRH, the pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH), which stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen resulting in the formation of secondary sex characteristics in girls. Estrogen stimulates the production of leptin. Adiponectin inhibits GnRH release resulting in reduced levels of GnRH and thereby a delayed onset of puberty. TNF- α and IL-6 inhibit the production of adiponectin and therefore stimulate the onset of puberty In detail, adiponectin is a regulator of puberty thereby inhibiting the onset of puberty (Figure 2). with obesity often have low levels of adiponectin. et al. showed that total adiponectin was significantly lower, whereas high molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin was significantly higher in ment. 55 63 develop a chronic low-grade inflammatory state, which can be indi- cated by a high level of circulating inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α 64 Individuals Sitticharoon positive associations with LH levels and the progression of puberty in 63 visfatin, resistin, and chemerin. and visfatin are expressed in the ovaries. adipokines in the ovaries suggests a role within the reproductive sys- tem; however, the exact biological processes have to be examined. Thus, specifically leptin, adiponectin, and inflammatory cytokines pro- duced by WAT could be permissive key players during an early onset of puberty in girls with obesity. As an exception, HMW adiponectin seems to have a stimulatory effect on peripheral repro- ductive function as HMW is not able to cross the blood brain 63 barrier. 4 | Markers that are used to assess puberty onset in boys are THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN BOYS spermarche, voice break, testicular volume, and pubic hair develop- 35 spermarche develop in the early stages of puberty onset, voice In women, omentin, chemerin, While pubic hair development, larger testicular volume, and 69 testicular volume increases, which occurs at an average age of break usually appears in later stages of puberty. Generally, first 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 6 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 11.9 years, followed by the development of pubic hair at 12.2 years of average, and lastly, boys experience spermarche around an aver- 55 related with leptin levels. Thereby, leptin plausibly has a minor impact in adrenarche in boys. Since leptin receptors are found in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes, they might be involved in the onset of puberty by affecting the HPG axis during gonadarche. Leptin stimulates the release of kisspeptin and GnRH, and as a consequence, it accelerates the onset of puberty (Table 1, Figure 3). In contrast, adiponectin inhibits the secretion of GnRH, GH, LH, and FSH therewith delaying the onset of puberty. However, adiponectin levels are generally lower in men compared with women and even lower in men with obe- age age of 13.4 years. 70 4.1 | Fat storage Many aspects of the reproductive physiology are energetically demanding,71 and therefore, an adequate energy level is necessary. In boys, a dynamic change in body composition occurs around the age of 10 to 13 years, in which they gain approximately 40% of sity. culating inflammatory cytokines. levels can stimulate the HPG axis and therewith an early onset of puberty in boys. Nevertheless, leptin can inhibit the production of tes- 72 mostly consisting of lean mass, which causes exhaustion of most of fat. Subsequently, a growth spurt follows in which they gain tissue 72 in boys, an adequate amount of body fat is important in the onset of their body fat. These alterations in amount of body fat indicate that 4.2 | Puberty in boys is initiated by the release of kisspeptin. As mentioned before, this activates the HPG axis, resulting in the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus, and consequently the release of LH and FSH 9,74 puberty. tosterone from the testes, to estrogen (Figure 3). of the development of secondary sex characteristics in boys. Additionally, leptin can affect fertility in men as it can modulate the nutritional support of spermatogenesis, and moreover, dysfunction of spermatogenesis is associated with an increased leptin level and 73 58 2,60-62 HPG axis from the pituitary gland (Figure 1). and LH stimulates the secretion of testosterone from the testes, which inhibits the release of kisspeptin from the KNDy neurons and 9,48 in men, the release of kisspeptin is more consistent, causing a con- 29,48 subsequently GnRH from the hypothalamus. receptors expressed on KNDy neurons. In humans, KNDy neurons Contrarily to women, LH-induced testosterone levels lead to the stant release of LH. development of secondary sex characteristics in boys. differences between sexes in kisspeptin release are related to a sex- specific and sex steroid-dependent kisspeptin system as estrogen and progesterone modulate kisspeptin activity through the sex-steroid 48 in the infundibular nucleus are involved in negative and positive sex- 48 tal exposure to sex steroids and result in sex-specific differences in steroid feedbacks. kisspeptin release. These sexual dimorphisms are induced by perina- 75,76 4.3 | Adipokines The association between obesity and puberty onset in boys is rather controversial compared with findings in girls. Most studies reported an early onset of puberty in boys associated with increased ate adipose tissue from actual breast tissue. stages are more difficult to assess than female stages as boys lack a more determined marker such as menarche. Thirdly, puberty onset can be indicated by the activation of the HPG axis, and the presence of these secondary sex characteristics is the result of hormonal 2 14,17,22,23,50,51,77,78 BMI, 20,49 all while others reported no associations at Current markers used 79 16,80 or a delayed onset of puberty (Table 1). The presence of excessive adipose tissue can be involved in puberty onset in boys as the secretion of adipokines can modulate both adrenarche and gonadarche. Leptin can affect adrenarche by modulating both the HPG and HPA axes,33 and moreover, androgen levels were positively 55 nal androgen secretion in boys with premature adrenarche was not associated with plasma leptin levels. Nevertheless, enhanced adre- 9 In more detail, 61,62 adiponectin, and individuals with obesity often have high levels of cir- Moreover, inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, and IL-6, inhibit expression of the leptin receptor in the testis. FSH induces spermatogenesis, too. function and role still have to be examined. 64 High leptin and low adiponectin and fat tissue can convert testosterone Both processes might result in the delay 29,61,79 81,82 In men, other adipokines like chemerin are found in the gonads 65 Thus, particularly high leptin and low adiponectin levels stimulate the HPG axis and thereby accelerate the onset of puberty in boys. Additionally, leptin can dysregulate the development of secondary sex characteristics and spermatogenesis by affecting testosterone levels and nutritional sup- port of spermatogenesis. 5 | LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Even though multiple epidemiological studies have shown the link between puberty onset and obesity, there are some important limita- tions. Firstly, determining both the onset and stage of puberty is rather difficult. For instance, assessing the stage of breast develop- ment in girls with obesity is complicated as clinicians should differenti- 2 changes in response to the activated HPG axis. to determine the onset of puberty refer to secondary sex characteris- tics, such as testicular volume in boys and breast development in girls. A more accurate measurement of puberty onset would be to combine secondary sex characteristics with plasma or serum hormone level measurements such as LH, FSH, adipokines, e.g. leptin. Thereby, differences in puberty measurements could explain variations in the age of puberty onset between boys and girls within different Thereby, resistin is expressed in the testes of rats, but its exact 83 Secondly, male pubertal 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 7 of 10 FIGURE 3 Adipokines affecting the initiation of puberty in boys. Leptin activates kisspeptin secretion in KNDy neurons, this activates the production of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH), activating the production of testosterone from the testes allowing the development of secondary sex characteristics. Leptin also inhibits the production of testosterone, which may cause a delayed onset of puberty. Adiponectin inhibits GnRH release. Low levels of adiponectin, as a result of TNF-α and IL-6 expression, lead to a reduced inhibition of GnRH. In response to GnRH release, the pituitary gland will secrete FSH and LH, and the testes will produce testosterone resulting in the development of secondary sex characteristics in boys countries, and In addition, the inclusion of a of puberty. ferent time points is complicated, as subjects examined several decades ago presented pronounced differences concerning lifestyle patterns such as nutrition and exercise habits. Lastly, obesity or over- weight is often determined by BMI, a classification based on weight and height measurements. Additionally, it is important that all studies studies or across continents, ethnicities proper age range (8-16 years) is important when assessing the onset (Figure 4). 12-15,17,20-23,49,77-79,84,85 30,47 Furthermore, comparison between studies from dif- 86 Specifically in children, BMI is often dependent on age and growth use the same anthropometric standards and sex-specific cut-offs. 13,14,16-23,49-51,77-80 fat and would represent a more accurate measurement in its regard. Based on this review, several suggestions can be made for further research. Firstly, the roles of adipokines like resistin, chemerin, visfatin, and omentin in puberty onset, fertility, and sexual maturation should be examined in detail. Secondly, future research examining the onset of puberty should combine indicators of puberty onset (e.g. breast development or testicular volume) with plasma or serum hor- mone measurements such as LH, FSH, sex-steroids, adipokines (e.g. spurts. ment in case of growth spurts. distribution of body fat should be taken into account in determining puberty and obesity in children. For instance, the body adiposity index (BAI), which was introduced in 2011 by Bergman et al.,87 uses hip cir- cumference and height in order to estimate the percentage of body 87 Thereby, BMI is a less accurate measure- F I G U R E 4 87,88 Therefore, both percentage and Average age of puberty onset in Europe, China, and the United States according to several studies from Table 1. Age of puberty onset ranges from 8.47 to 13.33 years in girls and from 8.63 leptin), and body fat distribution (e.g. BAI,87 waist-hip ratio's and/or dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)2). Additionally, defining con- sistent and general measurements of puberty in both boys and girls, combined with a proper age range (8-16 years), would facilitate the comparisons between different studies and their results. 12-15, 17, 20-23, 25-29, 31 to 13.7 years in boys. included if average age of markers used to assess puberty was not reported. Pink: girls. Blue: boys Studies (Table 1) were not 39, 56 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 8 of 10 NIEUWENHUIS ET AL. 6 | CONCLUSION In conclusion, epidemiological data regarding obesity and puberty onset in girls show similar outcomes as adiposity results in the early onset of puberty in girls. The majority of the studies examining boys with obesity indicate an early onset of puberty, while not all reported an earlier onset of puberty. In detail, high leptin, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels combined with low adiponectin levels stimulate the activation of the HPG axis in girls and boys with obesity, and 5, 45, 50, 51 REFERENCES 1. Kumar S, Kelly AS. Review of childhood obesity: from epidemiology, etiology, and comorbidities to clinical assessment and treatment. May- o Clin Proc. 2017;92(2):251-265. 2. Reinehr T, Roth CL. Is there a causal relationship between obesity and puberty? The Lancet Child & adolescent health. 2019;3(1):44-54. 3. WorldHealthOrganization. Facts and figures on childhood obesity. 2017. 4. Guglielmi V, Sbraccia P. Obesity phenotypes: depot-differences in adipose tissue and their clinical implications. Eat Weight Disord. 2018; 23(1):3-14. 5. Gomez-Hernandez A, Beneit N, Diaz-Castroverde S. Escribano O. 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FUNDING INFORMATION This research was funded by Europees Fonds voor Regionale Ontwikkeling (EFRO), project BriteN 2016. ORCID Ilse A.C. Arnoldussen Amanda J. Kiliaan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7395-5284 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2158-6210 13, 14, 16-26, 29-32 Furthermore, several receptors Nevertheless, We conclude Search strategy We searched PubMed for articles published before Novem- ber 15th, 2019 using relevant keywords, including ‘onset of puberty and adiposity/obesity’, ‘onset of puberty’, ‘children with obesity’, ‘adipose tissue’, ‘childhood obesity’, ‘adiposity’, ‘obesity’, ‘adipokine(s)’, ‘HPG axis’, ‘adipokines ovary/ova- ries’, or ‘adipokines testes’, either alone or in combination. 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Obesity Reviews. 2020;21:e13005. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/obr.13005 1467789x, 2020, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13005, Wiley Online Library on [10/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are goverNorma norma Norma norma dalam kehidupan