Examples of foods that are high in protein are

apples, oranges, pears, bananas

brownies, cookies, ice cream, cake

celery, carrots, green beans, broccoli

Nutrition: The 6 Major Nutrients

Classification of plants • Plants can be classified as cultivated and wild plants. • Both cultivated and wild plants are very useful to people, animals and the environment. 1. Cultivated plants: • Cultivated plants are plants grown by people for selling. • They can be grown in the field, vegetable garden, home garden and orchard. Classification of plants 2. Wild plants Wild plants are plants that grow on their own outside the garden, orchard or field. They have many uses such as: • Food for people and animals • Shelter • Source of fuel in form of firewood. • Examples include, grasses, msasa, yellow wood, mahogany, mopane Plant Nutrition • The presence of plant nutrients in the soil make them grow well. • The three major plant nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Sources of plant nutrients • The source for plant nutrients are grouped into organic and inorganic sources. Organic sources of plant nutrients • These are found in nature. • They are natural materials such, decayed plant and animal matter which include: • Animal manure from cattle, sheep, goats, poultry and pigs. • Green manure • Legume crops like beans, peas and groundnuts. • Humus • These material sources may also be called natural fertilizers. Inorganic sources of plant nutrients • These are sources of plant nutrients made by people in industries. They include: • Compound fertilizers like compound A, B, C and D. • These have two or more nutrients. • Straight fertilizers like ammonium nitrate, single super phosphate and urea. • A straight fertilizer supplies a single or more nutrient to the crop. A straight fertilizer A Compound fertilizer Sources of N,P,K • Ammonium nitrate and Urea- contain nitrogen Double super Phosphate, Single super phosphate-contain phosphorus • Muriate of Potash contains Potassium 2 . Compound fertilisers -have two or three of the three major plant nutrients (N.P.K). N-nitrogen P-phosphorus K-potassium Examples Compound D Wednesday 17 May 2023 Revision exercise (Plant nutrition) 1 .Name the 3 plant nutrients needed by plants. 2. What are the 2 groups of plant nutrients sources? 3. Give 3 examples of organic sources of plant nutrients. 4. What is a straight fertilizer? 5. Compound fertilizer supplies ……………or ………………. Nutrients. Vegetable crops • A vegetable is any part of a plant that is eaten by humans as food part of a meal. • Vegetables are grouped and named according to the part that is eaten. • These are leaf, root, fruit, flower, bulb, tuber and legume vegetables. Leaf vegetables Types of veg Legume etable cropsvegetables Fruit vegetables Root, bulb and tuber Flower vegetables Cabbage Peas Tomato Root: carrots Cauliflower Rape Green beans Pepper Parsnip broccoli Spinach Melons Beetroot Tsunga Cucumber Bulb: onion Lettuce Squash Garlic kale Egg plant Leek chillies Tuber: Irish potato Wednesday 31 May 2023 Vegetable crops 1. What is a vegetable? 2. Which one is not a vegetable from the list below? a. Covo B. cabbage C. wheat D. tomato 3. Choose a vegetable which is not a fruit vegetable. a. tomato B. pepper C. kale D. egg plant 4. From which pair of vegetables do we eat the flower? A. cauliflower and garlic B. broccoli and cauliflower C. broccoli and rape D. cauliflower and pepper 5. Give one example of a vegetable belonging to each of the following groups. a. root b. legume c. bulb 6. Name any 5 groups of vegetable classification according to the parts eaten. Growing leaf vegetables • Although there are many types of vegetables, the leaf, fruit and bulb vegetables are widely grown. • Leaf vegetables form the greater part of vegetable crops. • Leaf vegetables belong to a family called brassica. • Brassicas include cabbages, lettuce, spinach, covo and many others. • Each brassica family has got its own varieties called cultivar. • They usually grow under the same climatic conditions and are affected by the same pests and diseases. • The selection of a variety depends on the following : The intended use of the vegetable, for example, salad, stew or snacks. Days taken to mature. Disease resistant Season of the year Seedbed preparation • Brassica vegetables are usually raised in seedbeds. • The seedbeds are prepared by: • Marking the position of the bed 1 meter in width by any length using a tape measure, hammer and pegs. • Digging a seedbed to a depth of 25 to 30cm using a hoe. • Breaking lumps of soil using a garden rake. Soil requirements • Brassicas need: • Well drained soils. • Fertile soil for good growth • Slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5-6) Climatic requirements • Brassicas need cool to warm temperatures. • Very low temperatures cause cabbages to flower which is called bolting. • Brassicas can be grown throughout the year. Seedbed preparation • Brassica seedlings are usually raised in seedbeds. • A seedbed is prepared by: Marking the position of the bed 1 metre in width by any length using a tape measure, hammer and pegs. Digging a seedbed to depth of 25 to 30 cm using a hoe. Breaking lumps of soil using a garden rake. This is done in order to have a fine tilth and improve soil to seed contact. Making ridges that a 15cm high. Apply 3 to 5kg/m² of well decomposed manure. 60 to 100g/m² of compound fertilizer can be added into the soil. Management of vegetable crops • After transplanting the seedlings, the seedlings need to be looked after. (a)Controlling weeds: all vegetables must be kept weed free. • This is done either by hand pulling weeds or shallow cultivation using a hand fork. (b) Pest control: common pests that affect the brassicas are aphids and diamond black moth larva. • Aphids are small green insects that suck the juice from the leaves leaving them with curls. • They are controlled by spraying malathion using the instructions on the label. (c) Disease control: bacterial diseases are common in brassicas. • Common diseases are black rot and soft rot, especially in cabbages. • These are controlled by: Crop rotation Early planting Planting resistant cultivars (d) Top dressing: brassicas are top dressed using Ammonium Nitrate at a rate of 2.5g per plant. • Top dressing is usually done 3 or 4 weeks after germination. FIELD CROPS • Field crops are crops that are grown on a large piece of land. • Example of field crops:  Maize  Cotton  Groundnuts  Roundnuts  Wheat  Sunflower  Tobacco  Sugar cane  Tea  Coffee  Soya beans  sorghum Classification of field • Field crops can be classified according to use such crops cereal, fibre, sugar and oil. 1. Cereal crops: • A cereal is a grass grown for its edible seeds. • They are also known as grain crops. • The major cereal crops are maize, wheat, rice, barley, sorghum and millet. 2 . fiber crops : • these are crops which are grown for their fiber and are used in making textiles, ropes and rugs. • Important fiber crops are cotton, flax and sisal 3. Oil seed crops: • These crops are grown for the purpose of extracting oil from their seed. • The main oil seed crops are groundnuts, sunflower, soyabean and cotton seed. 4 . Sugar crops : • Sugar crops include sugarcane,

Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1− . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2− as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2−) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic mass−atomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2− has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1− . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2− . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2−3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2−3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1− 2− 3− 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO2−3 arsenate, AsO3−3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrO−3 chromate, CrO2−4 phosphite, PO3−3 chlorate, ClO−3 dichromate, Cr2O2−7 phosphate, PO3−4 chlorite, ClO−2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4 cyanide, CN− oxalate, C2O2−4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO−4 peroxide, O2−2 hydrogen carbonate, HCO−3 silicate, SiO2−3 hydrogen sulfate, HSO−4 sulfate, SO2−4 hydrogen sulfide, HS− sulfite, SO2−3 hydroxide, OH− hypochlorite, ClO− nitrate, NO−3 nitrite, NO−2 perchlorate, ClO−4 permanganate, MnO−4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO−3) and nitrite (NO−2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClO− , hypochlorite ClO−2 , chlorite ClO−3 , chlorate ClO−4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.

Nutrition refers to the science that deals with the various factors of which food is composed and the way in which proper nourishment is brought about. Home Economics and Livelihood Education 7 Seibo College 152 Human nutrition involves properly feeding the people. It is therefore important to learn more about nutrition, taking into consideration the three (3) important factors: a. the food we eat b. the way it is digested, absorbed and used in the tissues of the body c. the kind of people for whom the food is intended Good health or “wellness” is not a matter of chance. Good health is a product of good nutrition which is the result of an adequate supply of essential nutrients in your body. Lack of these nutrients lead to illness or a condition known as “malnutrition”. Malnutrition occurs if there is an imbalance intake of nutrients or an inadequacy of one or any of the nutrients. Malnutrition are manifested in the following cases: 1. obesity due to overeating- Obesity occurs when a person eats more than what the body requires under normal condition. This results in an excess supply of calories that leads to obesity or overnutrition. 2. stunted growth of children due to lack of protein- If there is no sufficient supply of carbohydrates or fats protein is used by the body as an alternative source of energy. 3. under weight due to lack of carbohydrates- If the total amount of nutrients provided by the diet is insufficient , it results to undernutrition. What is good nutrition? Home Economics and Livelihood Education 7 Seibo College 153 What are the causes of malnutrition? 1. ignorance or lack of knowledge about proper food intake 2. low standard of living 3. limited food supply 4. emergence of calamities or social unrest 5. increased family size 6. poor eating habits What are food habits? Food habits mean one’s attitude towards food. If the body is fed by junk foods and became over/under supplied with particular vitamins, protein or other nutrients then the body will suffer from malnutrition. Let us identify the factors affecting food habits.  Education – knowledge about nutrition will help one to make wise decision about food.  Foods available - The kinds of food available to you usually are the foods you eat. Some foods can grow only in certain types of geographic locations and this determines the foods available in such locations  Religion - What foods people can eat or cannot eat have been dictated by their religious beliefs. For example, Moslems do not eat pork because Islam forbids them to eat it. Home Economics and Livelihood Education 7 Seibo College 154  Ethnicity – members of cultural groups formed their own living patterns which include food customs. It includes what food can or cannot be eaten.  Income/economic status – the type of food you choose depends on how money you have. Income dictates what food you can eat and how you eat them.  Convenience -. Meal management practices affect food habits because you can only prepare and eat foods you can easily cook with the facilities and the knowledge you have. Food habit refers to the way in which different people select , cook, serve and eat food that are available to them. Home Economics and Livelihood Education 7 Seibo College 155 Look at the diagram below for a better understanding. FACTORS THAT AFFECT FOOD HABITS FOOD HABITS Education Foods available Religion Convenience Economic status Ethnicit

1. Eat slowly, chew your food well. It takes twenty (20) minutes before your stomach sends a clear message to your brain that you're full. Take your time and savor the flavor of your meal. 2. Eat well When your body doesn't receive the required nutrients, your metabolism slows down. Metabolism is the rate at which you burn calories while resting. So, if you don't eat enough, fewer calories will be burnt and there will be less fat loss. You should eat small meals at regular intervals to keep your energy levels high. 3. Eat less red meat Red meats are high in saturated fat and should be avoided by people with high cholesterol. Chicken and fish are the best meats to consume. These meats can be baked, grilled or roasted. 4. Eat more fiber foods Add fiber to your diet, this adds bulk to your food and prevents constipation. Whole grain foods like oatmeal, bran, wheat germ and brown rice, fruits, especially with skins, prunes, etc, are all Seven (7) healthy eating habits for your guidelines: How you eat your food is as important as what you eat. So, the next time you sit down to eat, enjoy your meal by keeping these pointers in mind. Home Economics and Livelihood Education 7 Seibo College 157 good sources of fiber. Fiber helps in binding cholesterol, which results to less production of bad cholesterol. 5. Have calcium-rich foods Aside fro milk other sources of calcium and protein are red kidney beans, mustard greens, etc. Proteins can be found in meats, sprouts, soya, etc. 6. Eat foods that contain iron These include liver, fruits like watermelon, vegetables like spinach, beans, beets and broccoli, whole grains, dried fruits, especially prunes, sunflower seeds, etc. 7. Relish the flavors You may have heard some of these before. But the best good food habit, which we all seem to overlook, is to actually taste and enjoy the flavor of the food with your emotions instead of just your tongue. How can we prevent malnutrition? Following are the checklists of steps to prevent malnutrition.  Nutrition campaign on the importance of food nutrients.  Proper selection, preparation and serving of well-balanced meals.  Vegetable gardening in schools and at home.  Intensive program from the government especially for the less privileged members of the community.

Nutrition Notes Nutrition- study of how your body uses food Process by which body uses nutrients How you look and feel Resist diseases and illness How you perform physically and mentally Nutrients: substances in food your body needs to grow, repair and supply energy to your body cells 6 Classes of Nutrients 1.Carbohydrates: 1 gram= 4 calories 2. Protein: 1 gram- 4 calories 3. Fats: 1 gram= 9 calories 4.Water 5. Vitamins 6. Minerals Calorie: measurement of energy in food Metabolism: Rate at which body burns energy(calories) Hunger: physical drive to eat Appetite: pshycological desire for food What influences your food choices: Foods you like Health Reasons Family and Culture Time & Money Advertising Emotions Friends Social Media: Modeling Nutrients Carbohydrates: your body’s main source of energy sugars/starches in food 45%-65% of diet #1 source of energy Simple: sugars converted to glucose= energy (fruits, dairy, honey, some manufactured foods) Complex: sugars linked together (starches) (grains, bread, pasta, beans, vegetables) Fiber: tough, indigestible carbohydrates Cleans our digestive system Prevents some types of cancer Prevents heart disease (fruits, vegetables, whole grains,nuts) 2. Protein: growth and repair of body tissues Made up of chemicals called “amino acids” Basic building material of all body cells (muscles, bones, skin, internal organs) Secondary source of energy protein(hemoglobin) attaches to oxygen in blood Functions as hormones regulating body functions 10-15% of diet *Body uses 20 Amino Acids found in food ( body produces 11 and 9 must come from diet) Essential amino acids: 9 amino acids body doesn't produce Complete Amino Acids: foods that contain all 9 essential amino acids ( animal products) Incomplete Amino Acids: food products that do not contain all 9 essential amino acids. Fats 15-25% of diet Secondary source of energy Blood clotting Controlling inflammation Maintains healthy skin/hair absorb /transport fat soluble vitamins Regulates body temperature Types of Fat Unsaturated: “good” fat Liquid at room temperature Can help fight heart disease (veg oil, nuts) Saturated: “bad” fat Solid at room temp Clogs arteries Causes strokes, heart attack, diabetes (animal products, meat, dairy) Cholesterol: waxy like fat substance found in meat products HDL: good type of cholesterol Body creates(liver) Creates cell wall, hormones, and vit D LDL: bad cholesterol- found in foods (clogs arteries) 4. Trans Fat: “one of the worst type of fats” Formed by a process called “hydrogenation”: adding Hydrogen molecules to unsaturated fats to make it more solid and resistant to chemical change. Vitamins A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. Vitamins are classified as either fat soluble (vitamins A, D, E and K) or water soluble (vitamins B and C). This difference between the two groups is very important. It determines how each vitamin acts within the body. The fat soluble vitamins are soluble in lipids (fats). Fat soluble vitamins can be stored in our body Water soluble vitamins must be taken every day Human body produces some amounts of Vitamin D & K

To the Lakota, and other indigenous people on North America's Great Plains, the bison was an essential part of their culture ( expressed in the quote on the previous page). The bison provided meat for nutrition, a hide for clothing and shelter, bones for tools, and fat for soap. The bison was also central to their religious beliefs. So, when European settlers hunted the bison nearly to extinction, Lakota culture suffered. Culture is central to a society and the identity of its people, as well as its continued existence. Therefore, geographers study culture as a way to understand similarities and differences among societies across the world, and in some cases, to help preserve these societies. Analyzing Culture All of a group's learned behaviors, actions, beliefs, and objects are a part of culture. It is a visible force seen in a group's actions, possessions, and influence on the landscape. For example, in a large city you can see people working in offices, factories, and stores, and living in high-rise apartments or suburban homes. You might observe them attending movies, concerts, or sporting events. Culture is also an invisible force guiding people through shared belief systems, customs, and traditions. Culture is learned, in that it develops through experiences, and not merely transmitted through genetics. For example, many people in the United States have developed a strong sense of competitiveness in school and business, and believe that hard work is a key to success. These types of elements, visible and invisible, are cultural traits. A series of interrelated traits make up a cultural complex, such as the process of steps and acceptable behaviors related to greeting a person in different cultures. A single cultural artifact, such as an automobile, may represent many different values, beliefs, behaviors and traditions and be representative of a cultural complex. Since culture is learned there are many ways that one generation passes its culture to the next. Children and adults learn traits three ways: • imitation, as when learning a language by repeating sounds or behaviors from a person or television • informal instruction, as when a parent reminds a child to say "please" • formal instruction, as when students learn history in school 132 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION CULTURAL COMPLEX OF THE AUTOMOBILE The automobile provides much more than just transportation, as it reflects many values that are central to American culture. Origins of Culture The area in which a unique culture or a specific trait develops is a culture hearth. Classical Greece was a culture hearth for democracy more than 2,000 years ago. New York City was a culture hearth for rap music in the 1970s. Geographers study how cultures develop in hearths and diffuse-or spread-to other places. Geographers also study taboos, behaviors heavily discouraged by a culture. For example, many cultures have taboos against eating certain foods, such as pork or insects. What is considered taboo changes over time. In the United States, marriages between Protestants and Catholics were once taboo, but they are not widely opposed now. Traditional, Folk, and Indigenous Cultures With the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, modern transportation and communication connected people as never before and led to extensive cultural mixing, especially as cities have grown. The world prior to this time was very different; however, remnants of the past are still evident in our modern cultures. Traditional, folk, and indigenous cultures share some important characteristics and are often grouped together, but they do have some subtle differences. Traditional Culture Recently, the meanings of traditional, folk, and indigenous culture have begun to merge, causing geographers to debate when each should be used. Increasingly, the term traditional culture is used to encompass all three cultural designations. All three types share the function of passing down long-held beliefs, values, and practices and are generally resistant to rapid changes in their culture. Folk Culture The beliefs and practices of small, homogenous groups of people, often living in rural areas that are relatively isolated and slow to change, are known as folk cultures. Like all cultures, they demonstrate the diverse ways that people have adapted to a physical environment. For example, people around the world learned to make shelters out of available resources, whether 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 133 it was snow or mud bricks or wood. However, people used similar resources such as wood differently. In Scandinavia, people used trees to build cabins. In the American Midwest, people processed trees into boards, built a frame, and attached the boards to it. Many traits of folk culture continue today. Corn was first grown in Mexico around 10,000 years ago, and it is still grown there today. While many elements of folk culture exist side by side with modern culture, there are people whose societies have changed little, if at all, from long ago. These people practice traditional cultures, those which have not been affected by modern technology or influences. They often live in remote regions, such as some small tribes in the Amazon rainforest, and have scant knowledge of the outside world. As the lines continue blurring between cultural designations, the Amish of Pennsylvania are often referenced as both folk and traditional culture. Indigenous Culture When members of an ethnic group reside in their ancestral lands, and typically possess unique cultural traits, such as speaking their own exclusive language, they are considered an indigenous culture. Some indigenous peoples have been displaced from their native lands, but still practice their indigenous culture. Native Americans in the United States, such as the Navajo, have kept indigenous cultural practices. First Nations of Canada, such as the Inuit, have also retained their indigenous culture. Globalization and Popular Culture As a result of the Industrial Revolution, improvements in transportation and communication have shortened the time required for movement, trade, or other forms of interaction between two places. This development, known as space-time compression (see Topics 1.4 and 3.6), has accelerated culture change around the world. In 1817, a freight shipment from Cincinnati needed 52 days to reach New York City. By 1850, because of canals and railroads, it took half that long. And by 1852, it took only 7 days. Today, an airplane flight takes only a few hours, and digital information takes seconds or less. Similar change has occurred on the global scale. People travel freely across the world in a matter of hours, and communication has advanced to a point where people share information instantaneously across the globe. The increased global interaction has had a profound impact on cultures, from spreading English across the world to instant sharing of news, events and music. Globalization specifically refers to the increased integration of the world economy since the 1970s. The process of intensified interaction among peoples, governments, and companies of different countries around the globe has had profound impacts on culture. The culture of the United States is intertwined with globalization. Through the influence of its corporations, Hollywood movies, and government, the United States exerts widespread influence in other countries. But other countries also shape American culture. For example, in 2019, the National Basketball Association included players from 38 countries or territories. When cultural traits- such as clothing, music, movies, and types of 134 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP. EDITION businesses-spread quickly over a large area and are adopted by various groups, they become part of popular culture. Elements of popular culture often begin in urban areas and diffuse quickly through globalization processes such as the media and Internet. These elements can quickly be adopted worldwide, making them part of global culture. People around the world follow European soccer, Indian Bollywood movies, and Japanese animation known as anime. With people in many nations wearing similar clothes, listening to similar music, and eating similar food, popular cultural traits often promote uniformity in beliefs, values, and the cultural landscape across many places The cultural landscape, also known as the built environment (see Topic 3.2), is the modification of the environment by a group and is a visible reflection of that group's cultural beliefs and values. Traditional Culture to Popular Culture Popular culture emphasizes trying what is new rather than preserving what is traditional. Many people, especially older generations or those who follow a folk culture, openly resist the adoption of popular cultural traits. They do this by preserving traditional languages, religions, values, and foods. While older generations often resist the adoption of popular culture, they seldom are successful in keeping their traditional cultures from changing, especially among the young people of their society. One clash between popular and traditional culture is occurring in Brazil. As the population expands to the interior of the rain forest, many indigenous cultures, like the Yanamamo tribe, have more contact with outside groups. Remaining isolated by the forest is becoming increasingly difficult as many young people from the indigenous cultures become exposed to popular culture and begin to integrate into the larger Brazilian society. As the young people leave their communities, they are more likely to accept popular culture at the expense of their indigenous cultural heritage, which threatens the very existence of their folk culture. Traditional culture typically exhibits horizontal diversity, meaning each traditional culture has its own customs and language that makes it distinct from other culture groups. Yet, people people within each group are usually homogeneous, or very similar to each other. By contrast, popular culture typically exhibits vertical diversity, meaning that modern urban societies are usually heterogeneous, or exhibiting differences, within the society and usually contain numerous multiethnic neighborhoods. However, on a global scale popular cultures are relatively similar with the same type of malls, shops, fast food, and clothing. Urban global culture centers are not identical, yet, global cities often do not have as much horizontal diversity across space as folk cultures. 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 135 COMPARING TRADITIONAL AND POPULAR CULTURE Trait Traditional Culture Popular or Global Culture Society • Rural and isolated location • Urban and connected location • Homogeneous and • Diverse and multiethnic indigenous population population • Most people speak an • Many people speak a global indigenous or ethnic local language such as English or language Arabic • Horizontal diversity • Vertical diversity Social • Emphasis on community and • Emphasis on individualism and Structure conformity making choices • Families live close to each • Dispersed families other • Weakly defined gender roles • Well-defined gender roles Diffusion • Relatively slow and limited • Relatively rapid and extensive • Primarily through relocation • Often hierarchical • Oral traditions and stories • Social media and mass media Buildings and • Materials produced locally, • Materials produced in distant Housing such as stone or grass factories, such as steel or glass • Built by community or owner • Built by a business • Similar style for community • Variety of architectural styles • Different between cultures • Similar between cities • Traditional architecture • Postmodern / contemporary architecture Food • Locally produced • Often imported • Choices limited by tradition • Wide range of choice • Prepared by the family or • Purchased in restaurants community Spatial Focus • Local and regional • National and global Artifacts, Mentifacts, and Sociofacts Whether a cultural attribute is considered traditional, folk, indigenous, or popular in nature, it is valuable to differentiate between elements of culture that can be seen and those that can not. There are artifacts that comprise the material culture, which consists of tangible things, or those that can be experienced by the senses. Art, clothing, food, music, sports, and housing types are all tangible elements of culture. Another element of the study of artifacts is understanding the techniques to use or build a specific artifact. Artifacts can be unique to a particular culture, or can be shared. For example, people of all cultures need to communicate through language, yet there are many groups that possess languages unique to their culture. The ability to read, write and understand the English language is an artifact of importance for much of popular global culture. 136 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION Mentifacts comprise a group's nonmaterial culture and consist ofintangible concepts, or those not having a physical presence. Beliefs, values, practices, and aesthetics (pleasing in appearance) determine what a cultural group views as acceptable and desirable. Mentifacts can also be unique or shared. People of many cultures possess an belief in one or many deities, and often the deities are unique to that culture. The belief in a god is a mentifact-the religious building or symbols are artifacts. Cultural groups also possess sociofacts, which are the ways people organize their society and relate to one another. Taken altogether, people tend to see the whole of their culture as greater than the sum of its individual parts. Sociofacts are embodied through families, governments, sports teams, religious organizations, education systems, and other social constructs. As with artifacts and mentifacts, sociofacts may also be unique or similar to other societies. Families are the foundations of most societies, yet what constitutes the structure of a family may vary widely between cultural groups. For example, Western cultures tend to view the nuclear family, consisting of the parents and their children as the basic family unit. By contrast, in many Western African cultures the norm is the extended family, consisting of several generations and other family members such as cousins living under one roof.

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