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What is a Hurricane, Typhoon, or Tropical Cyclone? The terms "hurricane" and "typhoon" are regionally specific names for a strong "tropical cyclone". A tropical cyclone is the generic term for a non-frontal synoptic scale low-pressure system over tropical or sub-tropical waters with organized convection (i.e. thunderstorm activity) and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation (Holland 1993). Tropical cyclones with maximum sustained surface winds of less than 17 m/s (34 kt, 39 mph) are usually called "tropical depressions" (This is not to be confused with the condition mid-latitude people get during a long, cold and grey winter wishing they could be closer to the equator). Once the tropical cyclone reaches winds of at least 17 m/s (34 kt, 39 mph) they are typically called a "tropical storm" or in Australia a Category 1 cyclone and are assigned a name. If winds reach 33 m/s (64 kt, 74 mph), then they are called: "hurricane" (the North Atlantic Ocean, the Northeast Pacific Ocean east of the dateline, or the South Pacific Ocean east of 160E) "typhoon" (the Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline) "severe tropical cyclone" or "Category 3 cyclone" and above (the Southwest Pacific Ocean west of 160°E or Southeast Indian Ocean east of 90°E) "very severe cyclonic storm" (the North Indian Ocean) "tropical cyclone" (the Southwest Indian Ocean) Coriolis Effect The Coriolis Effect—the deflection of an object moving on or near the surface caused by the planet’s spin—is important to fields, such as meteorology and oceanography. Storm Approaching Southeast Asia Because of the Coriolis Effect, hurricanes spin counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, while these types of storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. This Northern Hemisphere storm, approaching Southeast Asia, is spinning counterclockwise. Earth is a spinning planet, and its rotation affects climate, weather, and the ocean through the Coriolis Effect. Named after the French mathematician Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis (born in 1792), the Coriolis Effect refers to the curved path that objects moving on Earth’s surface appear to follow because of the spinning of the planet. As Earth turns, points near the equator—countries like Ecuador and Kenya—are moving much faster than places near the planet’s poles. This is because Earth is shaped like a marble: Its circumference is larger near its middle (the equator) than near its top and bottom. All places on Earth experience a day that is about 24 hours long, but points near the equator have to travel longer distances in the same period of time, which means that those places move faster. Scientists say these points have more “angular momentum.” This is why rockets are usually launched from places near the equator, like Cape Canaveral, Florida, United States. Such locations give rockets a large initial speed, which helps them get into orbit using the least possible amount of fuel. The Coriolis Effect influences wind patterns, which in turn dictate how ocean currents move. Imagine wind near the equator flowing to the north. That wind starts with a certain speed due to Earth’s rotation (near the equator, Earth rotates at a speed of roughly 1,600 kilometers per hour (1,000 miles per hour) from west to east). As the wind travels north toward the North Pole, it moves over parts of Earth that are rotating progressively more slowly. Since the wind retains its angular momentum, it keeps moving from west to east, overtaking the part of Earth turning more slowly below it. As a result, the wind appears to bend to the east (that is, to the right). This is the Coriolis Effect in action. Wind flowing south from the equator would likewise bend to the east. This effect is responsible for many meteorological and oceanographic phenomena. For instance, due to the Coriolis Effect, hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere spin in a counterclockwise direction, while hurricanes in the Southern Hemisphere (known as cyclones) spin in a clockwise direction. Ocean-circling currents known as “gyres” also spin in spiral patterns thanks to the Coriolis Effect. There is an urban legend that water in toilets spins in opposite directions in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres because of the Coriolis Effect. But that isn't true—a toilet bowl is too small for the effect to be observed. Instead, other factors like the shape of the toilet bowl and the direction that the water enters are largely responsible for how the flushing water moves.

Sets of Numbers: Natural, Whole, Integers, Rational Numbers, Irrational Numbers, Real Numbers, Complex Numbers Interval Notation Set Builder Notation Number Lines, open circles, closed circles Sets and Subsets - Union and Intersection Parts of the Cartesian Plane: origin, quadrants, signs on numbers in each quadrant, x-axis, y-axis Points being symmetric to each other about the x-axis, y-axis and origin Distance Formula-calculating distance between 2 given points Midpoint-calculating midpoint between 2 given points

Create a multiple choice test (10 questions with answers) from the following text: The Environment The environment is the combination of forces and conditions that surround and influence living and non-living things. Human beings’ environment includes such factors as temperature, food supply and other people that surround them. A plant’s environment may be made up of soil, sunlight, and animals that will eat the plant. A rock’s environment may be made up of seaweed, water and fish. Non-living environmental factors, such as temperature and sunlight, make up the abiotic (non-living) environment. Living organisms such as seaweed and food, make up the biotic environment. Both the abiotic and biotic environments interact to make up the total environment of living and non-living things. Ecology Ecology studies the relationships between living things and their environment. No living thing, plant or animal, lives alone. Every living thing depends in some way upon certain other living and non-living things to survive. The study of ecology increases our understanding of the world and all its creatures. This is crucial because humanity’s survival and well-being depend on relationships that exist on a world-wide basis: changes in distant parts of the world affect us and our environment. One concern of ecologists is the rate at which we are using up natural resources such as coal, gas, and oil. Along with scientists, they are searching for ways to use sunlight and atomic energy for fuel and power as alternative energy sources. Ecology also studies how many living organisms there are on Earth and how they are distributed. It also considers non-living physical factors of the environment, for example the presence of water, as these can influence where organisms decide to live. It is also important to know which organisms share the same environment, as they may need each other to survive. This kind of information helps ecologists to conserve our natural world, protecting the habitat of animals that are in danger of extinction, or trying to reduce pollution and global warming. Ecosystems Ecosystems are biological communities of all living things like plants, animals and organisms in a specific area that interact with each other and with the non-living forms present in their environment. They are the foundations of the biosphere and determine the health of the entire planet’s system. A biosphere is a global ecosystem, containing many different kinds of ecosystems.

Make a multiple choice quiz for my year 8 science students based on the science in this transcript from a video: 3°C 0:04 It can be the difference between snow and sleet 0:08 Wearing a jacket or not 0:11 In your day-to-day life, it may not seem significant 0:15 But 3°C of global warming would be catastrophic 0:20 Heatwaves, droughts, extreme precipitation, even fire 0:25 3°C of warming is really disastrous 0:28 The scary thing is, the world is well on its way there 0:32 Since the industrial revolution, the Earth has warmed between 1.1°C and 1.3°C 0:40 This is a problem that babies you pass in the street will have to live with 0:46 Children born today... 0:47 ...are up to seven times more likely to face extreme weather than their grandparents 0:52 If global temperatures do rise by 3°C... 0:55 ...what would their world look like? Climate change is already having devastating effects 1:03 Rising sea levels 1:05 Desertification 1:07 Hollywood has always enjoyed imagining the end of the world 1:11 While blockbusters like this are clearly fiction... 1:14 ...this film will show the scenario we all face... 1:17 ...unless more drastic measures are taken to stop burning fossil fuels 1:30 In some parts of the world the effects of inaction are already clear 1:35 The slums of Bangladesh’s capital are filling up with climate migrants 1:41 Minara comes from Bhola District, an area in southern Bangladesh 1:46 There, like many other parts of the country... 1:49 ...rivers swollen by heavier rain and melting Himalayan glaciers... 1:53 ...are washing away people’s homes 1:56 Many, like her, have lost everything 2:00 Our home in Bhola had endless amounts of land 2:03 There was lots of space for farming, we had a spacious house 2:08 There were different types of fruits, vegetation and trees growing at home 2:12 We used to eat the fruit from our own trees 2:18 I can’t eat them now because they don't exist anymore 2:21 Since the river flooded for the third time, I had to flee to Dhaka 2:26 Life was much better back home 2:29 It was unbearable to live through, truly intolerable 2:33 We didn’t have the time to save anything at all 2:38 1.1°C to 1.3°C of global warming has already transformed Minara’s life 2:45 It’s one of the reasons why so many migrants like her... 2:47 ...are moving to the city each year... 2:50 ...nearly 400,000 according to the last estimate 2:53 And climate models show there could be much worse to come How climate modelling works 3:02 Climate scientist Joeri Rogelj... 3:04 ...has spent the last ten years modelling future climate scenarios... 3:08 ...for the United Nations 3:10 The models we use to carry out this exercise... 3:13 ...really represent the state of the art... 3:15 ...of our current knowledge of climate change and where we are heading 3:19 Joeri’s projections use data collected by hundreds of scientists around the world 3:26 Here this is the 3°C level... 3:28 ...and so there is at least a one-in-four chance that under current policies... 3:32 ...we would hit 3°C by the end of the century 3:36 This is just one of the scenarios Joeri looks at 3:40 Another one imagines that all policy promises are kept 3:44 The most optimistic assumes that all promises have been kept... 3:47 ...and net-zero targets are met 3:50 Where our best estimate ends up around 2°C at the end of the century... 3:54 ...there is still a one-in-20 chance that we end up with 3°C instead 3:59 One would not be entering a plane if there is a one-in-20 chance... 4:03 ...that the plane will crash Nowhere is safe from global warming 4:07 A rise of 3°C would affect everyone 4:10 Even wealthy cities in rich countries wouldn’t be immune to the consequences 4:15 European capitals like Paris and Berlin... 4:18 ...would bake under more extreme heatwaves 4:22 Frequent storm-surges in New York could turn parts of the city desolate 4:27 In many ways, cities magnify, intensify climate events 4:33 Cities are hotter than the places around them... 4:36 ...they tend to be more vulnerable to flooding 4:39 And you can get a really bad event in a city in a way that you can’t in the countryside 4:46 And because of their denser populations... 4:49 ...disasters in a city affect far more people 4:52 Some cities might be badly prepared for the changes coming 4:56 But they have the means to adapt 4:59 Cities tend to be wealthier than surrounding places 5:03 They have a lot of amenities 5:05 A city that has taken seriously the risks of a 3°C world... 5:08 …wouldn’t necessarily be a worse place to be in a 3°C world 5:12 But a city that hasn’t prepared for these sort of eventualities... 5:16 ...that might be a really nasty place The impact of prolonged droughts 5:20 So far, many developed cities have got off lightly... 5:24 ...but some rural parts of the world are suffering disproportionately 5:29 Smallholders—small-scale farmers—are particularly vulnerable to climate change 5:35 And there are over 600 million around the world 5:38 Smallholders with farms under two hectares... 5:40 ...produce around a third of the global food supply 5:46 Central America’s “Dry Corridor”... 5:48 ...supports a mix of smallholdings and medium-sized farms 5:53 Sandwiched between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea... 5:56 ...the area is prone to droughts 6:08 Israel Ramírez Rivera is a smallholder in Guatemala 6:12 Here, climate change is making the dry seasons longer, and more severe 6:18 This is the biggest ear of maize that this plot could deliver 6:23 He depends on his crops of corn and beans 6:26 But they’re getting harder to grow 6:30 The surrounding mountains... 6:32 ...used to provide us with native food... 6:38 ...and now that isn’t an option anymore... 6:41 ...due to climate change and its effects 6:46 Nearly two-thirds of the smallholders in the Dry Corridor now live in poverty 6:52 The impact of all of this for us... 6:59 ...malnutrition among children 7:03 We’ve lost a few 7:07 For my crops especially, the midsummer heat is harder than before 7:16 The plant dries up and can’t provide us... 7:19 ...with the necessary food provision 7:24 Severe droughts in Central America... 7:26 ...are now four times more likely than they were last century 7:30 Many families from here have gone to the States 7:37 The economic despair and debts... 7:44 ...have pushed many people from this community to do this journey 7:53 Migration from Guatemala to the United States has quadrupled since 1990 7:59 Not all of this has been due to climate change 8:02 But longer droughts would force even more to move 8:05 In a 3°C world, annual rainfall in this region... 8:09 ...could drop by up to 14% 8:12 At 3°C, over a quarter of the world’s population... 8:16 ...could endure extreme droughts for at least a month of the year 8:19 Northern Africa could see droughts that last for years at a time Rising sea levels, storm surges and flooding 8:24 But for some, too much water will be the problem 8:29 10% of the world’s population lives on a coastline... 8:32 ...that’s less than 10 metres above sea level 8:35 For these coastal inhabitants, a 3°C world would spell disaster 8:40 By 2100, global sea levels could have climbed by half a metre from 2005 levels 8:46 Low-lying cities like Lagos would be especially vulnerable... 8:49 ...with up to up to a third of the population displaced 8:54 And in Fiji, rising waters are already upending lives 9:04 You can see the graveyard there, it’s all under water now... 9:08 ...due to this rising sea level and climate change 9:15 The village of Togoru in Fiji is being swallowed by the sea 9:19 Barney Dunn, the village headman, has seen over half the village disappear 9:24 Relatives’ houses have been abandoned, and family graves are now under water 9:29 We have been asked by the government to relocate... 9:32 ...but no one wants to relocate... 9:34 ...because we have our great-great-grandparents down there in the sea 9:39 This is the place we’ve been brought up in 9:41 ...it’s not easy to leave 9:44 Past attempts to build a seawall haven’t worked 9:48 But Barney sees building a new one as the village’s only hope 9:52 If they do that, maybe we can save whatever is left 9:56 But if we don’t have the seawall, then it will be keep eroding and time will come... 10:01 ...maybe in ten,15 years, Togoru will be all eroded 10:05 Rising seas also mean storms cause more floods 10:11 And many more countries could suffer 10:14 The Philippines and Myanmar are just two countries... 10:17 ...that will also see an increase in storm surges in a 3°C world 10:21 To escape, many will move… 10:24 …often, to urban areas Extreme heat and wet-bulb temperatures 10:27 Half the world’s population already lives in cities... 10:31 ...almost a third in slums 10:36 For them, a 3°C world could be deadly 10:40 Minara has moved to Dhaka to escape the impact of climate change 10:44 But life could get even worse for her 10:47 I’m struggling a lot nowadays 10:49 The heat during the day is unbearable 10:52 Even late at night it doesn’t cool down 10:57 The heat is getting more intense every day 10:59 I mean, it’s going to get much worse 11:03 I can barely survive it now, how will I live through it in the future? 11:08 Dhaka is getting hotter 11:11 In the last 20 years the average daytime temperature... 11:13 ...has crept up by nearly half a degree 11:17 Days that approach 40°C are now being reported 11:20 And high so-called wet-bulb temperatures are on the rise 11:26 A wet-bulb temperature is a measure of heat and humidity 11:30 Humans cool themselves by sweating… 11:32 But in these conditions, when relative humidity is near 100%... 11:36 ...sweat doesn’t evaporate well 11:38 So people can’t cool down… 11:41 ...even if given unlimited shade and water 11:45 At a high wet-bulb temperature, the body can’t lose heat... 11:49 ...and so it gets hotter and hotter... 11:51 ...and the body is designed to work at a given temperature 11:53 And if it gets too hot inside, you will die 11:58 The human limit for wet-bulb temperatures is 35°C... 12:02 ...around skin temperature 12:04 Dhaka will have a much higher chance... 12:05 ...of reaching dangerous wet-bulb temperatures... 12:07 ...if global warming reaches 3°C 12:12 You can’t really adapt to that 12:14 You have to get out. If the temperature is so high that you can’t work... 12:20 ...can’t do hard manual labour outside for significant parts of the year... 12:25 ...then many places will become functionally no longer part of the economy 12:33 Jacobabad in Pakistan, and Ras al Khaimah, in the United Arab Emirates... 12:37 ...have already recorded deadly wet-bulb temperatures 12:40 More of the tropics and the Persian Gulf... 12:43 ...as well as parts of Mexico and the south-eastern United States... 12:47 ...could all get to this threshold by the end of the century 12:50 Climate modelling might show us the weather Increased migration and conflict 12:52 But it doesn’t show us its other effects on society 12:56 Established migration patterns could change 12:59 Climate disasters may exacerbate reasons people cross borders 13:03 Within countries, more people will move to cities 13:07 In a 3°C world, tens of millions of people a year... 13:10 ...could be displaced by disasters made worse by climate change 13:15 When people are displaced by climate... 13:18 …they may well go to cities... 13:19 ...because cities are the places that attract people from the countryside already 13:25 A lot of people who can get to the developed world... 13:28 ...not least because the developed world tends to be less hot, will give that a go 13:35 As migration around the world increases... 13:38 ...there could be more competition for fewer resources 13:42 Water—already a highly contested resource—will be a focal point 13:47 Turkey’s new Ilisu dam has reduced the flow of water into Iraq 13:53 China lays claim to rivers vital to India and Pakistan 13:57 The prospect of a water-conflict makes people very uneasy 14:03 How national tensions would exacerbate those sorts of reactions... 14:08 ...in a 3°C world... 14:09 ...is the sort of thing that no one should really want to find out 14:14 I think you’d have to be incredibly sanguine... 14:16 ...not to think that the sort of climate extremes that we talk about... 14:19 ...in a 3°C world wouldn’t lead some places... 14:22 ...to the brink of societal collapse 14:25 Those lucky enough to escape unrest... Adaptation and mitigation are crucial 14:28 ...would still have to adapt to a radically different world 14:32 People can adapt to climate change in all sorts of ways, one of the most obvious ones... 14:37 ...is air conditioning 14:39 But other ways to adapt at a local or regional level... 14:42 ...I mean, one of the most obvious is diversifying agriculture 14:47 There are physical things you can do, like seawalls 14:52 The fact that people can adapt and that adaptation will reduce suffering... 14:57 ...doesn’t mean that it will eliminate suffering 15:00 Suffering is built into this whole process of heating up the planet 15:06 Adaptation will only get the world so far 15:09 The best way to deal with a 3°C world... 15:12 ...is not to go to a 3°C world 15:14 And that’s why increasing efforts on mitigation are important 15:17 It’s why working towards negative emissions... 15:20 ...that could bring down the temperature after it peaks are important 15:25 Once you get to a 3°C world, you are in real bad global trouble 15:33 The scale of change needed... 15:35 ...and the slow progress of governments so far... 15:38 ...means 3°C of warming is uncomfortably likely unless more is done 15:44 Despite existing pledges, greenhouse-gas emissions... 15:48 ...are still set to rise by 16% from 2010 levels by 2030 15:54 The need to act has never been clearer 15:57 There’s still time to reduce emissions, so that a 3°C world remains fiction... 16:02 ...rather than becoming fact

Lesson 1: Why is the interior of the Earth hot? The interior of Earth is very hot (the temperature of the core reaches more than 5,000 degrees Celsius) for two main reasons: . The heat from when the planet formed, . The heat from the decay of radioactive elements. The Earth was formed by the process of accretion. After the creation of our solar system, meteorites gravitationally attracted each other and formed bigger objects, which attracted bigger masses, until our planets reach their current size. This process accumulated a lot of heat; when two objects collide, heat is generated. That is why your hands will get hot when you clap them for too long, or a nail gets very hot when you hammer it for a long time. This heat has not dissipated totally and represents about 10% of the total heat inside the Earth. The main source of heat is the decay of radioactive elements. Radioactive decay is a natural process; unstable elements like 238U (Uranium) or 40K (Potassium) stabilize with time and produce what we call daughter products: 206P (Lead) for Uranium and 40Ar (Argon) for Potassium. This process produces heat, which represents about 90% of the total heat inside the Earth. Lesson 2: How Magma Forms Magma is a molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth. This mixture is usually made up the of four parts: hot liquid base, called a melt; minerals crystallized by the melt; solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines; and dissolved gases. When magma is ejected by a volcano or other vent, the material is called lava. Magma that has cooled into a solid is

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