2.- Tipo de cristalización que se emplea con mayor frecuencia:

Crsitalización de impurezas coloridas

Práctica Nº 3: Cristalización

¿Cómo hacer que un Eggun te diga la verdad de lo que tú quieras saber? Para hacer que un Eggun te diga la verdad de lo que tú quieras saber, es importante entender primero qué es un Eggun y cómo se establece una comunicación con ellos. Un Eggun es un espíritu ancestral en la religión yoruba, también conocida como santería o regla de Osha. Se cree que los Eggun son los espíritus de los antepasados fallecidos y se les considera como intermediarios entre los seres humanos y los orishas, deidades de la religión. La comunicación con los Eggun se realiza a través de un ritual llamado consulta espiritual o "registro". Este ritual es llevado a cabo por un sacerdote o sacerdotisa de la religión, conocido como babalawo o santero/santera. Durante la consulta espiritual, el babalawo establece contacto con los Eggun a través de diferentes métodos, como el uso de caracoles, tableros de adivinación o posesión por parte del espíritu. Es importante tener en cuenta que la consulta espiritual y la comunicación con los Eggun son prácticas religiosas y deben ser realizadas por personas capacitadas y respetuosas de la tradición. No se recomienda intentar realizar estos rituales sin el conocimiento adecuado. Una vez establecida la comunicación con los Eggun, se pueden hacer preguntas para obtener respuestas sobre diferentes aspectos de la vida. Para asegurarse de que el Eggun te diga la verdad, es importante seguir ciertos pasos: 1. Preparación adecuada: Antes de realizar una consulta espiritual, es importante prepararse mentalmente y emocionalmente. Esto implica tener una actitud de respeto y humildad hacia los espíritus ancestrales, así como estar dispuesto a aceptar las respuestas que se reciban. 2. Realizar la consulta con un babalawo o santero/santera de confianza: Como se mencionó anteriormente, la comunicación con los Eggun debe ser realizada por personas capacitadas y respetuosas de la tradición. Busca a alguien con experiencia y reputación en la religión yoruba para realizar la consulta. 3. Formular preguntas claras y específicas: Para obtener respuestas precisas, es importante formular preguntas claras y específicas. Evita preguntas ambiguas o generales que puedan llevar a interpretaciones erróneas. 4. Escuchar atentamente las respuestas: Durante la consulta espiritual, es importante escuchar atentamente las respuestas que se reciben. Los Eggun pueden comunicarse a través del babalawo o santero/santera de diferentes formas, como mensajes directos, símbolos o señales. Presta atención a cualquier indicio o mensaje que pueda ser relevante para tu pregunta. 5. Respetar las respuestas recibidas: Una vez que se obtienen las respuestas de los Eggun, es importante respetarlas y tomarlas en consideración. Aunque las respuestas pueden no ser siempre lo que esperabas o deseabas escuchar, es importante recordar que los Eggun tienen su propia sabiduría y perspectiva. En resumen, para hacer que un Eggun te diga la verdad de lo que tú quieras saber, es necesario realizar una consulta espiritual con un babalawo o santero/santera de confianza, formular preguntas claras y específicas, escuchar atentamente las respuestas y respetarlas. Recuerda que la comunicación con los Eggun es una práctica religiosa y debe ser realizada con el debido respeto y conocimiento.

PRACTICE TEST NO. 3

LEA 1 : PRACTICE Test No. 3 : 25 Items

* 3.1. PRÁTICA - Desigualdade e Pobreza no Mundo (6.º ano)

As metodologias de ensino no ensino superior têm evoluído para melhor engajar os alunos, principalmente com o advento das novas tecnologias e mudanças nos hábitos de aprendizado. Aqui estão algumas abordagens modernas e como os podcasts se inserem nesse contexto: Metodologias Ativas no Ensino Superior 1. Aprendizagem Baseada em Problemas (PBL): O aluno é desafiado a resolver problemas reais ou simulados, desenvolvendo habilidades críticas e colaborativas. Isso estimula a autonomia no processo de aprendizagem. 2. Sala de Aula Invertida (Flipped Classroom): O conteúdo teórico é passado para o aluno de forma online (podcasts, vídeos, artigos) antes da aula, e o tempo em sala é focado na aplicação prática, debates e discussões. 3. Estudos de Caso: Alunos analisam casos reais, debatem alternativas de solução e aplicam conceitos teóricos. Esta metodologia incentiva o pensamento crítico e a tomada de decisões. 4. Gamificação: A utilização de elementos de jogos, como competição, pontuação e desafios, para engajar os alunos. Isso torna o aprendizado mais interativo e motivador. 5. Aprendizagem Colaborativa: Focada no trabalho em equipe, onde os alunos trocam experiências, discutem e constroem o conhecimento juntos, reforçando habilidades sociais e acadêmicas. 6. Método Socrático: Envolve a utilização de perguntas para incentivar o pensamento crítico. O professor faz perguntas que desafiam o aluno a refletir e construir sua própria compreensão dos conceitos. Podcasts no Ensino Superior Os podcasts são ferramentas cada vez mais utilizadas para enriquecer o ensino superior. Eles oferecem uma forma flexível e acessível de aprendizagem, podendo ser ouvidos em qualquer lugar e a qualquer momento. Aqui estão algumas maneiras de utilizá-los: 1. Complemento às aulas: Professores podem criar ou recomendar podcasts como material complementar às aulas, permitindo que os alunos revisem os conteúdos em seus próprios horários. 2. Entrevistas com especialistas: Podcasts com convidados especialistas de diversas áreas podem trazer perspectivas práticas e atualizadas sobre temas discutidos em sala de aula. 3. Discussão de temas complexos: Um podcast pode ser um espaço para explorar em profundidade questões que talvez não sejam completamente discutidas durante a aula devido ao tempo limitado. 4. Desenvolvimento de habilidades: Podcasts podem ajudar no desenvolvimento de habilidades como escuta ativa e compreensão oral, além de facilitar o contato com diferentes sotaques e estilos de comunicação, especialmente em contextos internacionais. 5. Podcasts como atividade: Professores podem incentivar os alunos a criarem seus próprios podcasts sobre temas estudados, promovendo a pesquisa, organização de ideias e a comunicação verbal eficaz.

“There’s No Such Thing as Sound Science” by By Christie Aschwanden was a lead science writer for FiveThirtyEight. FiveThirtyEight, Science, Dec. 6, 2017 Science is being turned against itself. For decades, its twin ideals of transparency and rigor have been weaponized by those who disagree with results produced by the scientific method. Under the Trump administration, that fight has ramped up again. In a move ostensibly meant to reduce conflicts of interest, Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Scott Pruitt has removed a number of scientists from advisory panels and replaced some of them with representatives from industries that the agency regulates. Like many in the Trump administration, Pruitt has also cast doubt on the reliability of climate science. For instance, in an interview with CNBC, Pruitt said that “measuring with precision human activity on the climate is something very challenging to do.” Similarly, Trump’s pick to head NASA, an agency that oversees a large portion the nation’s climate research, has insisted that research into human influence on climate lacks certainty, and he falsely claimed that “global temperatures stopped rising 10 years ago.” Kathleen Hartnett White, Trump’s nominee to head the White House Council on Environmental Quality, said in a Senate hearing last month that she thinks we “need to have more precise explanations of the human role and the natural role” in climate change. The same entreaties crop up again and again: We need to root out conflicts. We need more precise evidence. What makes these arguments so powerful is that they sound quite similar to the points raised by proponents of a very different call for change that’s coming from within science. This other movement strives to produce more robust, reproducible findings. Despite having dissimilar goals, the two forces espouse principles that look surprisingly alike: Science needs to be transparent. Results and methods should be openly shared so that outside researchers can independently reproduce and validate them. The methods used to collect and analyze data should be rigorous and clear, and conclusions must be supported by evidence. These are the arguments underlying an “open science” reform movement that was created, in part, as a response to a “reproducibility crisis” that has struck some fields of science.1 But they’re also used as talking points by politicians who are working to make it more difficult for the EPA and other federal agencies to use science in their regulatory decision-making, under the guise of basing policy on “sound science.” Science’s virtues are being wielded against it. What distinguishes the two calls for transparency is intent: Whereas the “open science” movement aims to make science more reliable, reproducible and robust, proponents of “sound science” have historically worked to amplify uncertainty, create doubt and undermine scientific discoveries that threaten their interests. “Our criticisms are founded in a confidence in science,” said Steven Goodman, co-director of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford and a proponent of open science. “That’s a fundamental difference — we’re critiquing science to make it better. Others are critiquing it to devalue the approach itself.” Calls to base public policy on “sound science” seem unassailable if you don’t know the term’s history. The phrase was adopted by the tobacco industry in the 1990s to counteract mounting evidence linking secondhand smoke to cancer. A 1992 Environmental Protection Agency report identified secondhand smoke as a human carcinogen, and Philip Morris responded by launching an initiative to promote what it called “sound science.” In an internal memo, Philip Morris vice president of corporate affairs Ellen Merlo wrote that the program was designed to “discredit the EPA report,” “prevent states and cities, as well as businesses from passing smoking bans” and “proactively” pass legislation to help their cause. The sound science tactic exploits a fundamental feature of the scientific process: Science does not produce absolute certainty. Contrary to how it’s sometimes represented to the public, science is not a magic wand that turns everything it touches to truth. Instead, it’s a process of uncertainty reduction, much like a game of 20 Questions. Any given study can rarely answer more than one question at a time, and each study usually raises a bunch of new questions in the process of answering old ones. “Science is a process rather than an answer,” said psychologist Alison Ledgerwood of the University of California, Davis. Every answer is provisional and subject to change in the face of new evidence. It’s not entirely correct to say that “this study proves this fact,” Ledgerwood said. “We should be talking instead about how science increases or decreases our confidence in something.” The tobacco industry’s brilliant tactic was to turn this baked-in uncertainty against the scientific enterprise itself. While insisting that they merely wanted to ensure that public policy was based on sound science, tobacco companies defined the term in a way that ensured that no science could ever be sound enough. The only sound science was certain science, which is an impossible standard to achieve. “Doubt is our product,” wrote one employee of the Brown & Williamson tobacco company in a 1969 internal memo. The note went on to say that doubt “is the best means of competing with the ‘body of fact’” and “establishing a controversy.” These strategies for undermining inconvenient science were so effective that they’ve served as a sort of playbook for industry interests ever since, said Stanford University science historian Robert Proctor. The sound science push is no longer just Philip Morris sowing doubt about the links between cigarettes and cancer. It’s also a 1998 action plan by the American Petroleum Institute, Chevron and Exxon Mobil to “install uncertainty” about the link between greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. It’s industry-funded groups’ late-1990s effort to question the science the EPA was using to set fine-particle-pollution air-quality standards that the industry didn’t want. And then there was the more recent effort by Dow Chemical to insist on more scientific certainty before banning a pesticide that the EPA’s scientists had deemed risky to children. Now comes a move by the Trump administration’s EPA to repeal a 2015 rule on wetlands protection by disregarding particular studies. (To name just a few examples.) Doubt merchants aren’t pushing for knowledge, they’re practicing what Proctor has dubbed “agnogenesis” — the intentional manufacture of ignorance. This ignorance isn’t simply the absence of knowing something; it’s a lack of comprehension deliberately created by agents who don’t want you to know, Proctor said.2 In the hands of doubt-makers, transparency becomes a rhetorical move. “It’s really difficult as a scientist or policy maker to make a stand against transparency and openness, because well, who would be against it?” said Karen Levy, researcher on information science at Cornell University. But at the same time, “you can couch everything in the language of transparency and it becomes a powerful weapon.” For instance, when the EPA was preparing to set new limits on particulate pollution in the 1990s, industry groups pushed back against the research and demanded access to primary data (including records that researchers had promised participants would remain confidential) and a reanalysis of the evidence. Their calls succeeded and a new analysis was performed. The reanalysis essentially confirmed the original conclusions, but the process of conducting it delayed the implementation of regulations and cost researchers time and money. Delay is a time-tested strategy. “Gridlock is the greatest friend a global warming skeptic has,” said Marc Morano, a prominent critic of global warming research and the executive director of ClimateDepot.com, in the documentary “Merchants of Doubt” (based on the book by the same name). Morano’s site is a project of the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow, which has received funding from the oil and gas industry. “We’re the negative force. We’re just trying to stop stuff.” Some of these ploys are getting a fresh boost from Congress. The Data Quality Act (also known as the Information Quality Act) was reportedly written by an industry lobbyist and quietly passed as part of an appropriations bill in 2000. The rule mandates that federal agencies ensure the “quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of information” that they disseminate, though it does little to define what these terms mean. The law also provides a mechanism for citizens and groups to challenge information that they deem inaccurate, including science that they disagree with. “It was passed in this very quiet way with no explicit debate about it — that should tell you a lot about the real goals,” Levy said. But what’s most telling about the Data Quality Act is how it’s been used, Levy said. A 2004 Washington Post analysis found that in the 20 months following its implementation, the act was repeatedly used by industry groups to push back against proposed regulations and bog down the decision-making process. Instead of deploying transparency as a fundamental principle that applies to all science, these interests have used transparency as a weapon to attack very particular findings that they would like to eradicate. Now Congress is considering another way to legislate how science is used. The Honest Act, a bill sponsored by Rep. Lamar Smith of Texas,3 is another example of what Levy calls a “Trojan horse” law that uses the language of transparency as a cover to achieve other political goals. Smith’s legislation would severely limit the kind of evidence the EPA could use for decision-making. Only studies whose raw data and computer codes were publicly available would be allowed for consideration. That might sound perfectly reasonable, and in many cases it is, Goodman said. But sometimes there are good reasons why researchers can’t conform to these rules, like when the data contains confidential or sensitive medical information.4 Critics, which include more than a dozen scientific organizations, argue that, in practice, the rules would prevent many studies from being considered in EPA reviews.5 It might seem like an easy task to sort good science from bad, but in reality it’s not so simple. “There’s a misplaced idea that we can definitively distinguish the good from the not-good science, but it’s all a matter of degree,” said Brian Nosek, executive director of the Center for Open Science. “There is no perfect study.” Requiring regulators to wait until they have (nonexistent) perfect evidence is essentially “a way of saying, ‘We don’t want to use evidence for our decision-making,’” Nosek said. Most scientific controversies aren’t about science at all, and once the sides are drawn, more data is unlikely to bring opponents into agreement. Michael Carolan, who researches the sociology of technology and scientific knowledge at Colorado State University, wrote in a 2008 paper about why objective knowledge is not enough to resolve environmental controversies. “While these controversies may appear on the surface to rest on disputed questions of fact, beneath often reside differing positions of value; values that can give shape to differing understandings of what ‘the facts’ are.” What’s needed in these cases isn’t more or better science, but mechanisms to bring those hidden values to the forefront of the discussion so that they can be debated transparently. “As long as we continue down this unabashedly naive road about what science is, and what it is capable of doing, we will continue to fail to reach any sort of meaningful consensus on these matters,” Carolan writes. The dispute over tobacco was never about the science of cigarettes’ link to cancer. It was about whether companies have the right to sell dangerous products and, if so, what obligations they have to the consumers who purchased them. Similarly, the debate over climate change isn’t about whether our planet is heating, but about how much responsibility each country and person bears for stopping it. While researching her book “Merchants of Doubt,” science historian Naomi Oreskes found that some of the same people who were defending the tobacco industry as scientific experts were also receiving industry money to deny the role of human activity in global warming. What these issues had in common, she realized, was that they all involved the need for government action. “None of this is about the science. All of this is a political debate about the role of government,” she said in the documentary. These controversies are really about values, not scientific facts, and acknowledging that would allow us to have more truthful and productive debates. What would that look like in practice? Instead of cherry-picking evidence to support a particular view (and insisting that the science points to a desired action), the various sides could lay out the values they are using to assess the evidence. For instance, in Europe, many decisions are guided by the precautionary principle — a system that values caution in the face of uncertainty and says that when the risks are unclear, it should be up to industries to show that their products and processes are not harmful, rather than requiring the government to prove that they are harmful before they can be regulated. By contrast, U.S. agencies tend to wait for strong evidence of harm before issuing regulations. Both approaches have critics, but the difference between them comes down to priorities: Is it better to exercise caution at the risk of burdening companies and perhaps the economy, or is it more important to avoid potential economic downsides even if it means that sometimes a harmful product or industrial process goes unregulated? In other words, under what circumstances do we agree to act on a risk? How certain do we need to be that the risk is real, and how many people would need to be at risk, and how costly is it to reduce that risk? Those are moral questions, not scientific ones, and openly discussing and identifying these kinds of judgment calls would lead to a more honest debate. Science matters, and we need to do it as rigorously as possible. But science can’t tell us how risky is too risky to allow products like cigarettes or potentially harmful pesticides to be sold — those are value judgements that only humans can make.

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