Primitive and Bronze age

Early society and accomplishments Origins Knowledge of the early prehistory of Southeast Asia has undergone exceptionally rapid change as a result of archaeological discoveries made since the 1960s, although the interpretation of these findings has remained the subject of extensive debate. Nevertheless, it seems clear that the region has been inhabited from the earliest times. Hominid fossil remains date from approximately 1,500,000 years ago and those of Homo sapiens from approximately 40,000 years ago. Furthermore, until about 7000 bce the seas were some 150 feet (50 metres) lower than they are now, and the area west of Makassar Strait consisted of a web of watered plains that sometimes is called Sundaland. These land connections perhaps account for the coherence of early human development observed in the Hoabinhian culture, which lasted from about 13,000 to 5000 or 4000 bce. The stone tools used by hunting and gathering societies across Southeast Asia during this period show a remarkable degree of similarity in design and development. When the sea level rose to approximately its present level about 6000 bce, conditions were created for a more variegated environment and, therefore, for more extensive differentiation in human development. While migration from outside the region may have taken place, it did not do so in a massive or clearly punctuated fashion; local evolutionary processes and the circulation of peoples were far more powerful forces in shaping the region’s cultural landscape. Technological developments and population expansion Perhaps because of a particular combination of geophysical and climatic factors, early Southeast Asia did not develop uniformly in the direction of increasingly complex societies. Not only have significant hunting and gathering populations continued to exist into the 21st century, but the familiar cultural sequences triggered by such events as the discovery of agriculture or metallurgy do not seem to apply. This is not to say that the technological capabilities of early Southeast Asian peoples were negligible, for sophisticated metalworking (bronze) and agriculture (rice) were being practiced by the end of the 3rd millennium bce in northeastern Thailand and northern Vietnam, and sailing vessels of advanced design and sophisticated navigational skills were spread over a wider area by the same time or earlier. Significantly, these technologies do not appear to have been borrowed from elsewhere but were indigenous and distinctive in character. Austronesian languages Austronesian languagesMajor divisions of the Austronesian languages. These technological changes may partially account for two crucial developments in Southeast Asia’s later prehistory. The first is the extraordinary seaborne expansion of speakers of Proto-Austronesian languages and their descendants, speakers of Austronesian (or Malayo-Polynesian) languages, which occurred over a period of 5,000 years or more and came to encompass a vast area and to stretch nearly half the circumference of Earth at the Equator. This outward movement of people and culture was evolutionary rather than revolutionary, the result of societal preference for small groups and a tendency of groups to hive off once a certain population size had been reached. It began as early as 4000 bce, when Taiwan was populated from the Asian mainland, and subsequently it continued southward through the northern Philippines (3rd millennium bce), central Indonesia (2nd millennium bce), and western and eastern Indonesia (2nd and 1st millennia bce). From approximately 1000 bce on the expansion continued both eastward into the Pacific, where that immense region was populated in a process continuing to about 1000 ce as voyagers reached the Hawaiian Islands and New Zealand, and westward, where Malay peoples reached and settled the island of Madagascar sometime between 500 and 700 ce, bringing with them (among other things) bananas, which are native to Southeast Asia. Thus, for a considerable period of time, the Southeast Asian region contributed to world cultural history, rather than merely accepting outside influences, as frequently has been suggested. The second development, which began possibly as early as 1000 bce, centred on the production of fine bronze and the fashioning of bronze-and-iron objects, particularly as they have been found at the site in northern Vietnam known as Dong Son. The earliest objects consisted of socketed plowshares and axes, shaft-hole sickles, spearheads, and such small items as fishhooks and personal ornaments. By about 500 bce the Dong Son culture had begun producing the bronze drums for which it is known. The drums are large objects (some weigh more than 150 pounds [70 kg]), and they were produced by the difficult lost-wax casting process and decorated with fine geometric shapes and depictions of animals and humans. This metal industry was not derived from similar industries in China or India. Rather, the Dong Son period offers one of the most powerful—though not necessarily the only or earliest—examples of Southeast Asian societies transforming themselves into more densely populated, hierarchical, and centralized communities. Since typical drums, either originals or local renditions, have been found throughout Southeast Asia and since they are associated with a rich trade in exotics and other goods, the Dong Son culture also suggests that the region as a whole consisted not of isolated, primitive niches of human settlement but of a variety of societies and cultures tied together by broad and long-extant trading patterns. Although none of these societies possessed writing, some displayed considerable sophistication and technological skill, and, although none appears to have constituted a territorial centralized state, new and more complex polities were forming.

Assessment 2: Python (Function and Non Primitive Datatypes)

Chapter-5 Quiz on Primitive Values, Type Casting and Expression

Primitive Data Structure defines a set of primitive elements that do not involve any other elements as its subparts. These are generally built-in data type in programming languages. E.g.:- Integers, Characters etc. Non-Primitive Data Structures are that defines a set of derived elements such as Arrays, Structures and Classes

MAKE A 9-ITEM EXERCISE.EACH SENTENCE SHOULD HAVE A GAP THAT CAN BE COMPLETED WITH ONE OF THE FOLLOWING WORDS OBSOLETE/SACRED/ PRIMITIVE/PREVAILING VIBRANT/ACCLAIMED/INDEPENDENTLY/PROFOUND. MAKE THE SENTENCES SIMPLE AND EASILY UNDERSTOOD

Plăcile de rețea (Network Interface Cards-NICs) conectează un echipament la rețea. Plăcile de rețea Ethernet sunt folosite pentru o conexiune cablată, în timp ce plăcile de rețea WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) sunt folosite pentru wireless. Un echipament cu utilizator final ar putea include unul sau ambele tipuri de plăci de rețea. De exemplu, o imprimantă de rețea poate avea doar o placă de rețea Ethernet, așadar, trebuie să se conecteze la rețea printr-un cablu Ethernet. Alte echipamente, precum tabletele sau telefoanele pot conține o placă de rețea WLAN și trebuie să folosească o conexiune wireless. Layer-ul Fizic Layer-ul fizic de la OSI furnizează mijloacele de transport a biților care realizează un frame de data link în mediul de rețea. Acest layer acceptă un frame complet de la layer-ul data link și îl codifică sub forma unor serii de semnale care sunt transmise în mediul local. Biții codificați care comprimă un frame sunt primiți fie de un echipament final, fie de unul intermediar. Procesul prin care trec datele de la nodul sursă la nodus destinație este: • Datele utilizatorului sunt segmentate de layer-ul transport, plasate în pachete de către layer-ul rețea, iar apoi încapsulate sub formă de frame-uri de către layer-ul data link. • Layer-ul fizic codifică frame-urile și creează semnalele undelor electrice, optice și radio care reprezintă biții în fiecare frame. • Aceste semnale sunt trimise în mediu pe rând. • Nodul destinație preia aceste semnale individuale de la nivelul fizic, le transformă în reprezentare binară și transmit biții la nivelul superior, data link, sub forma unui frame. Mediul layer-ului Fizic Există trei forme de bază ale mediului de rețea. Layer-ul fizic produce reprezentarea și gruparea biților pentru fiecare mediu, după cum urmează: • Cablu de cupru: Semnalele sunt modele ale pulsurilor electrice. • Cablul cu fibră optică: Semnalele sunt modele de lumină. • Wireless: Semnalele sunt modele ale transmisiunilor cu microunde. Figura afișează exemple de semnalizare pentru cupru, fibră optică și wireless. Pentru a activa interoperabilitatea layer-ului fizic, toate aspectele acestor funcții sunt guvernate de organizațiile de standardizare. Standardele Layer-ului Fizic Protocoalele și operațiile layerelor superioare din OSI sunt efectuate în software proiectat de ingineri și oameni de știință. De exemplu, serviciile și protocoalele din suita TCP/IP sunt definite de Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) în RFC-uri așa cum se arată în Figura 1. Layer-ul fizic constă în circuite electronice, mediu și conectori dezvoltați de ingineri. Așadar, este corespunzător ca standardele care guvernează acest hardware să fie definite de orgnizațiile relevante din domeniul ingineriei și electronicii. Există mai multe organizații naționale și internaționale diferite, organizații guvernamentale de reglementare și companii private implicate în stabilirea și menținerea standardelor layer-ului fizic. De exemplu, hardware-ul layer-ului fizic, mediul, codificarea și standardele de semnalizare sunt definite și guvernate de către: • International Organization for Standardization (ISO) • Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Association (TIA/EIA) • International Telecommunication Union (ITU) • American National Standards Institute (ANSI) • Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) • Autoritățile de reglementare națională a telecomunicațiilor, inclusiv Federal Communication Commission (FCC) din USA și European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ESTI) Pe lângă acestea, există grupuri de standardizare a cablărilor regionale precum CSA (Canadian Standards Association), CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) și JSA/JSI (Japanese Standards Association), care dezvoltă specificații locale. Figura 2 listează contribuitorii principali și câteva standarde relevante ale layer-ului fizic.

Primitive Datatypes

Java primitive types

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