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Speaking: describing pictures (u1 b2 WB)
Quiz by Prof. Fernando Scelzo
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Teaching English Introduction to the course: Language learning and teaching A 2 Characteristics of the language learners: Studying a system that aligns with international standards. A3 Cognitive factors in language learning: Addressing questions and obtaining necessary information regarding phenomena such as transfer, interference, and generalization; A4 Inductive and deductive language learning: ability and intelligence; and the phenomenon of systematic forgetting A5 Language learning methods and strategies: Familiarizing with foreign language learning methods, strategies for learning foreign languages, and communication strategies A6 International Assessment System of language skills in CEFR, IELTS, TOEFL: effective methods and strategies used to improve language skills (listening, reading, writing, speaking) A7 Psychological factors in language learning: Exploring various psychological factors such as self-esteem, shyness, risk-taking, anxiety, attitude, and motivation A8 The effectiveness of authentic materials during the learning process: The role of tasks and games in teaching foreign languages A9 Errors in language learning: Discussing types of errors, identifying and describing errors, causes of errors, and fossilized errors A10 Error correction or error analysis approaches: developing students' ability to apply their knowledge in practicing error correction A11 Age-related factors in language learning: Exploring types of comparisonand contrast, focusing on topics such as the age hypothesis and bilingualism, and providing a detailed explanation of these concepts A12 Teaching grammar: Studying grammar teaching methods; deductive and inductive approaches in grammar teaching; A13 Teaching grammar through context: linguistic intuition; language phenomena; using grammatical dictionaries; analyzing grammatical tasks; and designing exercises, tasks, and tests through completing grammarbased activities. A14 Teaching vocabulary. Seeking answers to questions such as 'What is a word?' and 'What does it mean to learn a word?' A15 Teaching vocabulary in context: teaching lexical units/phrases/collocations; introducing new vocabulary; using corpus data for pedagogical purposes; developing students' vocabulary learning strategies A16 Assessing vocabulary tasks: designing vocabulary tasks, exercises, and tests. In international assessment systems such as CEFR, IELTS, and TOEFL, grammar accuracy and lexical resource A 17 Teaching pronunciation: Understanding the importance of pronunciation for successful communication; teaching stress; teaching intonation A18 Modern technologies in teaching pronunciation A19 Error correction methods: watching to various experiences in this area and analyzing video lessons from international experts in the field A20 Analysis of skill integration in language learning: Understanding the stages of developing skill integration; integration of the four language skills; task-based integration; and project-based integration. A21 Teaching listening comprehension A22 Modern technologies in teaching listening comprehension A23 Teaching Speaking A24 Modern technologies in teaching Speaking A25 Teaching Reading A26 Modern technologies in teaching Reading A27 Teaching Writing A28 Modern technologies in teaching Writing A29 The role and importance of translation in teaching a foreign language A30 Module 2. International standards for teaching and assessment Classroom Language: The teacher's actions; the teacher's voice; the teacher's intonation; using the foreign language in the classroom A31 Foreign language environment: asking questions in the foreign language, giving instructions in the foreign language, providing oral explanations in the foreign language, and issues related to the use of the native language in the foreign language class. A 32 Designing curriculum: Studying, analyzing, and working with curricula designed for schools, lyceums, and colleges. A33 Planning lessons and the structure of lesson plans: determining thesequence of lessons, objectives, tasks, and expected outcomes; choosing the lesson structure for planning A34 Designing tasks for different stages of the lesson: Starting the lesson; concluding the lesson; connecting tasks within the lesson A35 Time management: allocating appropriate time for tasks during the lesson; and providing homework assignments A36 Educational materials and resources: Effective use of existing educational materials and resources; anticipating and addressing potential issues Planning and adapting materials: to the situation during teaching and working on lesson planning for groups of students with different abilities. A37 Classroom research: Stages of classroom research, data collection, analysis, and planning; creating/preparing the materials needed for data collection; distinguishing between the positive and negative aspects of the research A38 Data analysis: creating/preparing the materials needed for data collection; distinguishing between the positive and negative aspects of the research. A39 Peer lesson observation: Observing lessons; conducting interviews; questionnaires for teachers and students; maintaining a daily record; discussing problematic situations/events; notes and other aspects; the process of lesson observation: stages of observation; presenting observation results both orally and in writing. A40 Educational materials and national values: important tool for implementing and promoting educational standards, as well as national values. A41 Differences between methods of teaching foreign languages: practical application of modern methods in language teaching; foreign experiences in language teaching: the grammar-translation method; the method of conducting lessons entirely in the foreign language; the audio-linguistic method; and communicative methods. A42 Methods used in the local environment and their analysis: Discussion of the positive and negative aspects of various methods; language and culture; teaching/learning processes; the role of the native language in learning a foreign language; and the psychological foundations of foreign language teaching. A43 Teaching a foreign language through computer technologies A44 Types of independent work and its implementation A45 Principles of Assessment in foreign language teaching А46 Issues in Language Assessment А47 Alternatives in Assessment А48 Test methods. Methods and criteria for assessing language aspects: written expression, reading, listening comprehension, speaking, А49 integrating language skills: vocabulary; grammar; alternative forms of assessment; planning assessment; critical analysis; principles for designingtest tasks: scientific rigor, consistency, conciseness, clarity, informality, logical sequence, and systematic approach. А50 Foreign language for ESP. Studying and analyzing needs; setting objectives for teaching a foreign language in a specific field or professional area; defining teaching approaches in curriculum development; and discussing topics related to these areas. А51 Selecting textbooks, materials and resources А52 Content-based Instruction (CBI) А53 Strategies-based Instruction А54 Lifelong Learning: Teacher development, PreSETT, InSETT А55 The Role of Teaching Practice A56 Organization and implementation of compulsory and non-compulsory course process in foreign language teaching A57 Organization in and outclass activities A58 Defining the goals and content of foreign language teaching at various levels of the education system in the Republic of Uzbekistan: evaluating educational materials; adapting educational materials; creating educational materials; and discussing the role of the foreign language teacher in specialized fields to gain relevant information. A59 The role of independent study skills: foreign language focused on reading, research and study skills; make revision questions. incclude mcq question. answer the question. true falseUnderstanding Quantum Theory of Electrons in Atoms The goal of this section is to understand the electron orbitals (location of electrons in atoms), their different energies, and other properties. The use of quantum theory provides the best understanding to these topics. This knowledge is a precursor to chemical bonding. As was described previously, electrons in atoms can exist only on discrete energy levels but not between them. It is said that the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized, that is, it can be equal only to certain specific values and can jump from one energy level to another but not transition smoothly or stay between these levels. The energy levels are labeled with an n value, where n = 1, 2, 3, …. Generally speaking, the energy of an electron in an atom is greater for greater values of n. This number, n, is referred to as the principal quantum number. The principal quantum number defines the location of the energy level. It is essentially the same concept as the n in the Bohr atom description. Another name for the principal quantum number is the shell number. The shells of an atom can be thought of concentric circles radiating out from the nucleus. The electrons that belong to a specific shell are most likely to be found within the corresponding circular area. The further we proceed from the nucleus, the higher the shell number, and so the higher the energy level (Figure 9.4.1). The positively charged protons in the nucleus stabilize the electronic orbitals by electrostatic attraction between the positive charges of the protons and the negative charges of the electrons. So the further away the electron is from the nucleus, the greater the energy it has. This quantum mechanical model for where electrons reside in an atom can be used to look at electronic transitions, the events when an electron moves from one energy level to another. If the transition is to a higher energy level, energy is absorbed, and the energy change has a positive value. To obtain the amount of energy necessary for the transition to a higher energy level, a photon is absorbed by the atom. A transition to a lower energy level involves a release of energy, and the energy change is negative. This process is accompanied by emission of a photon by the atom. The following equation summarizes these relationships and is based on the hydrogen atom: The values nf and ni are the final and initial energy states of the electron. The principal quantum number is one of three quantum numbers used to characterize an orbital. An atomic orbital, which is distinct from an orbit, is a general region in an atom within which an electron is most probable to reside. The quantum mechanical model specifies the probability of finding an electron in the three-dimensional space around the nucleus and is based on solutions of the Schrödinger equation. In addition, the principal quantum number defines the energy of an electron in a hydrogen or hydrogen-like atom or an ion (an atom or an ion with only one electron) and the general region in which discrete energy levels of electrons in a multi-electron atoms and ions are located. Another quantum number is l, the angular momentum quantum number. It is an integer that defines the shape of the orbital, and takes on the values, l = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1. This means that an orbital with n = 1 can have only one value of l, l = 0, whereas n = 2 permits l = 0 and l = 1, and so on. The principal quantum number defines the general size and energy of the orbital. The l value specifies the shape of the orbital. Orbitals with the same value of l form a subshell. In addition, the greater the angular momentum quantum number, the greater is the angular momentum of an electron at this orbital. Orbitals with l = 0 are called s orbitals (or the s subshells). The value l = 1 corresponds to the p orbitals. For a given n, p orbitals constitute a p subshell (e.g., 3p if n = 3). The orbitals with l = 2 are called the d orbitals, followed by the f-, g-, and h-orbitals for l = 3, 4, 5, and there are higher values we will not consider. There are certain distances from the nucleus at which the probability density of finding an electron located at a particular orbital is zero. In other words, the value of the wavefunction ψ is zero at this distance for this orbital. Such a value of radius r is called a radial node. The number of radial nodes in an orbital is n – l – 1. Consider the examples in Figure 9.4.2. The orbitals depicted are of the s type, thus l = 0 for all of them. It can be seen from the graphs of the probability densities that there are 1 – 0 – 1 = 0 places where the density is zero (nodes) for 1s (n = 1), 2 – 0 – 1 = 1 node for 2s, and 3 – 0 – 1 = 2 nodes for the 3s orbitals. The s subshell electron density distribution is spherical and the p subshell has a dumbbell shape. The d and f orbitals are more complex. These shapes represent the three-dimensional regions within which the electron is likely to be found. Principal quantum number (n) & Orbital angular momentum (l): The Orbital Subshell: https://youtu.be/ms7WR149fAY If an electron has an angular momentum (l ≠ 0), then this vector can point in different directions. In addition, the z component of the angular momentum can have more than one value. This means that if a magnetic field is applied in the z direction, orbitals with different values of the z component of the angular momentum will have different energies resulting from interacting with the field. The magnetic quantum number, called ml, specifies the z component of the angular momentum for a particular orbital. For example, for an s orbital, l = 0, and the only value of ml is zero. For p orbitals, l = 1, and ml can be equal to –1, 0, or +1. Generally speaking, ml can be equal to –l, –(l – 1), …, –1, 0, +1, …, (l – 1), l. The total number of possible orbitals with the same value of l (a subshell) is 2l + 1. Thus, there is one s-orbital for ml = 0, there are three p-orbitals for ml = 1, five d-orbitals for ml = 2, seven f-orbitals for ml = 3, and so forth. The principal quantum number defines the general value of the electronic energy. The angular momentum quantum number determines the shape of the orbital. And the magnetic quantum number specifies orientation of the orbital in space, as can be seen in Figure 9.4.3. Figure 9.4.4 illustrates the energy levels for various orbitals. The number before the orbital name (such as 2s, 3p, and so forth) stands for the principal quantum number, n. The letter in the orbital name defines the subshell with a specific angular momentum quantum number l = 0 for s orbitals, 1 for p orbitals, 2 for d orbitals. Finally, there are more than one possible orbitals for l ≥ 1, each corresponding to a specific value of ml. In the case of a hydrogen atom or a one-electron ion (such as He+, Li2+, and so on), energies of all the orbitals with the same n are the same. This is called a degeneracy, and the energy levels for the same principal quantum number, n, are called degenerate energy levels. However, in atoms with more than one electron, this degeneracy is eliminated by the electron–electron interactions, and orbitals that belong to different subshells have different energies. Orbitals within the same subshell (for example ns, np, nd, nf, such as 2p, 3s) are still degenerate and have the same energy. While the three quantum numbers discussed in the previous paragraphs work well for describing electron orbitals, some experiments showed that they were not sufficient to explain all observed results. It was demonstrated in the 1920s that when hydrogen-line spectra are examined at extremely high resolution, some lines are actually not single peaks but, rather, pairs of closely spaced lines. This is the so-called fine structure of the spectrum, and it implies that there are additional small differences in energies of electrons even when they are located in the same orbital. These observations led Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck to propose that electrons have a fourth quantum number. They called this the spin quantum number, or ms. The other three quantum numbers, n, l, and ml, are properties of specific atomic orbitals that also define in what part of the space an electron is most likely to be located. Orbitals are a result of solving the Schrödinger equation for electrons in atoms. The electron spin is a different kind of property. It is a completely quantum phenomenon with no analogues in the classical realm. In addition, it cannot be derived from solving the Schrödinger equation and is not related to the normal spatial coordinates (such as the Cartesian x, y, and z). Electron spin describes an intrinsic electron “rotation” or “spinning.” Each electron acts as a tiny magnet or a tiny rotating object with an angular momentum, even though this rotation cannot be observed in terms of the spatial coordinates. The magnitude of the overall electron spin can only have one value, and an electron can only “spin” in one of two quantized states. One is termed the α state, with the z component of the spin being in the positive direction of the z axis. This corresponds to the spin quantum number ms=12. The other is called the β state, with the z component of the spin being negative and ms=−12. Any electron, regardless of the atomic orbital it is located in, can only have one of those two values of the spin quantum number. The energies of electrons having ms=−12 and ms=12 are different if an external magnetic field is applied. Figure 9.4.5 illustrates this phenomenon. An electron acts like a tiny magnet. Its moment is directed up (in the positive direction of the z axis) for the 12 spin quantum number and down (in the negative z direction) for the spin quantum number of −12. A magnet has a lower energy if its magnetic moment is aligned with the external magnetic field (the left electron) and a higher energy for the magnetic moment being opposite to the applied field. This is why an electron with ms=12 has a slightly lower energy in an external field in the positive z direction, and an electron with ms=−12 has a slightly higher energy in the same field. This is true even for an electron occupying the same orbital in an atom. A spectral line corresponding to a transition for electrons from the same orbital but with different spin quantum numbers has two possible values of energy; thus, the line in the spectrum will show a fine structure splitting. The Pauli Exclusion Principle An electron in an atom is completely described by four quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms. The first three quantum numbers define the orbital and the fourth quantum number describes the intrinsic electron property called spin. An Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli formulated a general principle that gives the last piece of information that we need to understand the general behavior of electrons in atoms. The Pauli exclusion principle can be formulated as follows: No two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the same set of all the four quantum numbers. What this means is that electrons can share the same orbital (the same set of the quantum numbers n, l, and ml), but only if their spin quantum numbers ms have different values. Since the spin quantum number can only have two values (±12), no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital (and if two electrons are located in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins). Therefore, any atomic orbital can be populated by only zero, one, or two electrons. The properties and meaning of the quantum numbers of electrons in atoms are brieflySpeakingSpeaking Test Verb Reviewspeaking activitiesSpeaking taskSpeaking P2Speaking Final Exam - Tasks C and D Helpful Phrases