How do we refer to our research ambassador, Theresa May, in the first instance?

The Rt Hon. the Baroness May of Maidenhead

Which sentence matches our style the best?

With your support, we are improving and changing life with type 1 diabetes (T1D), advancing research breakthroughs on the way to curing the condition.

With your support, we are improving and changing life with type 1 diabetes, advancing research breakthroughs on the way to curing the condition.

With your support, we are improving and changing life with type one diabetes (T1D), advancing research breakthroughs on the way to curing the condition.

With your support, we are improving and changing life with type 1 diabetes (T1D), advancing research breakthroughs on the way to curing the disease.

Style Guide - mini quiz

Sure! Here's a solid list of **AP English Literature vocabulary**—terms that often come up in class, essays, and the AP exam. I'll break it down into categories to make it easier to study. --- ### 📚 **Literary Devices & Techniques** 1. **Alliteration** – Repetition of initial consonant sounds 2. **Allusion** – A reference to another text, event, or figure 3. **Anaphora** – Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses 4. **Antithesis** – Contrast of ideas in a balanced or parallel construction 5. **Apostrophe** – Addressing someone absent, dead, or nonhuman as if present and able to respond 6. **Assonance** – Repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words 7. **Asyndeton** – Omission of conjunctions between parts of a sentence 8. **Consonance** – Repetition of consonant sounds, often at the end of words 9. **Diction** – Word choice (formal, informal, colloquial, etc.) 10. **Enjambment** – Continuation of a sentence without pause beyond the end of a line in poetry --- ### 🧠 **Figurative Language** 1. **Hyperbole** – Extreme exaggeration 2. **Imagery** – Descriptive language that appeals to the senses 3. **Irony** - *Verbal*: Saying the opposite of what’s meant - *Situational*: When the outcome is the opposite of what's expected - *Dramatic*: Audience knows something characters don’t 4. **Metaphor** – A direct comparison without using "like" or "as" 5. **Metonymy** – Substituting the name of one thing with something closely related (e.g. "The crown" for royalty) 6. **Synecdoche** – A part representing the whole (e.g. "All hands on deck") 7. **Personification** – Giving human traits to nonhuman things 8. **Simile** – A comparison using "like" or "as" 9. **Symbol** – An object, character, or color that represents something beyond itself --- ### ✍️ **Poetic & Rhetorical Terms** 1. **Caesura** – A pause in a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation 2. **Couplet** – Two lines of poetry that usually rhyme 3. **Iambic Pentameter** – A line with five iambs (unstressed-stressed syllables) 4. **Blank Verse** – Unrhymed iambic pentameter 5. **Free Verse** – Poetry with no fixed meter or rhyme 6. **Elegy** – A mournful poem, often for the dead 7. **Ode** – A lyric poem expressing emotion, often in honor of something 8. **Sonnet** – A 14-line poem with a specific rhyme scheme (Shakespearean or Petrarchan) --- ### 📖 **Narrative & Structure Terms** 1. **Tone** – The author's attitude toward the subject 2. **Mood** – The feeling or atmosphere the reader experiences 3. **Theme** – The central idea or message in a work 4. **Motif** – A recurring element that has symbolic significance 5. **Foil** – A character who contrasts with another character to highlight traits 6. **Foreshadowing** – Clues or hints about what will happen later 7. **Juxtaposition** – Placing two elements side by side to present a contrast 8. **Point of View** – Perspective from which the story is told (1st, 2nd, 3rd person) 9. **Stream of Consciousness** – Narrative style that mimics thoughts and feelings 10. **Frame Narrative** – A story within a story --- Want me to make flashcards, a quiz, or a PDF study guide with these? Or need help using them in a literary analysis essay?

Land warfare is a complex domain that involves the application of military power on the ground to achieve political and strategic objectives. Modern military doctrine, such as that used by the U.S. Army and the Indian Army, categorizes these elements into Combat Power and the Principles of War. 1. The 8 Elements of Combat Power Combat power is the total means of destructive, constructive, and information capabilities that a military unit can apply. It is typically broken down into eight key elements: ElementDescriptionLeadershipThe "multiplier" of all other elements. It provides purpose, direction, and motivation to soldiers.InformationEnables commanders to make informed decisions and creates opportunities to achieve results.Mission CommandThe system used to integrate the other elements. It focuses on decentralized execution based on the commander's intent.Movement & ManeuverThe movement of forces to gain a positional advantage over the enemy to deliver lethal or non-lethal effects.IntelligenceThe understanding of the enemy, terrain, weather, and civil considerations.FiresThe use of weapon systems (artillery, mortars, air support) to create specific lethal or non-lethal effects.SustainmentThe logistics required to maintain operations, including ammunition, fuel, food, and medical support.ProtectionThe preservation of the force so that the commander can apply maximum combat power.2. The Principles of War These are the enduring "rules of thumb" that guide how land forces are employed strategically and tactically: Objective: Direct every operation toward a clearly defined and attainable goal. Offensive: Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. You cannot win by defending alone. Mass: Concentrate the effects of combat power at the most advantageous place and time. Economy of Force: Allocate the minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts so you can "mass" elsewhere. Maneuver: Place the enemy in a position of disadvantage through flexible movement. Unity of Command: Ensure all forces operate under a single responsible commander toward a common objective. Security: Prevent the enemy from gaining an unexpected advantage. Surprise: Strike the enemy at a time, place, or in a manner for which they are unprepared. Simplicity: Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans to minimize confusion in the "fog of war." 3. The Modern Legal Framework Land warfare is also governed by the Law of Land Warfare (International Humanitarian Law), which rests on four pillars: Military Necessity: Actions must be necessary to achieve a legitimate military goal. Distinction: Forces must distinguish between combatants and non-combatants (civilians). Proportionality: The anticipated harm to civilians must not be excessive in relation to the concrete military advantage gained. Unnecessary Suffering: Weapons and methods must not cause gratuitous or superfluous injury. Note: Contemporary land warfare is increasingly "Multi-Domain," meaning land forces must now integrate with cyber, space, and electronic warfare to be effective. , While land warfare uses many tools, the two primary "philosophies" of how to win a war are Attrition and Maneuver. Most modern conflicts are a spectrum of both, but understanding the pure form of each helps explain military strategy. 1. Attrition Warfare: The "Sledgehammer" Attrition warfare is a strategy where one side attempts to win by wearing down the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous losses in personnel, equipment, and supplies. Core Logic: "I have more than you." It assumes that if you can destroy the enemy’s resources faster than they can replace them, you will eventually win. Focus: Firepower and mass. Success is measured by "body counts," equipment destroyed, and the steady seizing of terrain. Command Style: Usually centralized and methodical. It requires strict synchronization of massive resources (artillery, logistics, manpower). Historical Example: The Battle of Verdun (WWI). German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn famously stated his goal was to "bleed France white" by forcing them to defend a position they could not afford to lose, regardless of the cost in lives. 2. Maneuver Warfare: The "Scalpel" Maneuver warfare seeks to shatter the enemy’s moral and physical cohesion—their ability to act as a unified force—rather than simply destroying every soldier. Core Logic: "I am faster and more unpredictable than you." It aims to create a state of chaos where the enemy's leadership can no longer make effective decisions. Focus: Speed, surprise, and dislocation (forcing the enemy to be in the wrong place at the wrong time). The OODA Loop: Developed by Col. John Boyd, this is the heart of maneuver theory. It stands for Observe, Orient, Decide, Act. The goal is to cycle through these steps faster than the enemy, essentially "getting inside" their decision-making process until they collapse from confusion. Historical Example: The 1940 Invasion of France (Blitzkrieg). Instead of fighting a line-by-line battle of attrition, German forces used speed and concentrated armor to bypass strongpoints, cut communication lines, and cause a total systemic collapse of the French military in weeks. 3. Key Differences at a Glance FeatureAttrition WarfareManeuver WarfareObjectivePhysical destruction of the enemy army.Functional/Psychological collapse of the enemy.TargetThe enemy's strength (mass).The enemy's weakness (vulnerability).Primary ToolMassed Firepower.Movement and Tempo.Command"Command Push" (Top-down, rigid)."Recon Pull" (Decentralized, flexible).Success MetricExchange ratios (Kill counts).Disruption and loss of enemy control.4. The Modern Synthesis: "Schwerpunkt" In practice, no army is purely "maneuver" or "attrition." To maneuver successfully, you often need a period of attrition to punch a hole in the enemy's line. A critical concept here is the Schwerpunkt (Center of Gravity/Focus of Effort). A commander identifies the single most important place to strike and concentrates all available "elements of power" there. While the rest of the front might look like attrition, the Schwerpunkt is where the maneuver happens to achieve a breakthrough. Modern Reality: In high-intensity conflicts today (like the war in Ukraine), we see a "return to attrition" because modern sensors (drones, satellites) make it very difficult to achieve the surprise needed for pure maneuver warfare. When you can see everything, it's hard to be "unexpected."

The advantage of direct method is that the teacher can control the class and fit in a lot of activity into a short class period. This leaves plenty of opportunities for the students to hone their skills, especially new ones. On the other hand, because the class is centered around the teacher, some students may not receive proper feedback, and creativity is limited. Also, the lesser talented athletes often tend to get lost in the shuffle while the great athletes shine. However, there are now a multitude of various teaching strategies that can be employed in addition to that method. Ex: Announcements, Module/Unit introductions, Descriptions/modeling of assignments and learning activities, Written or video lectures, Demonstration videos, Presentations, Discussions moderated by instructors, Interactive tutorials. Indirect Method The Indirect Teaching Style allows students to be involved in their own learning through experience and other peer’s knowledge. Students can use critical thinking to expand their learning capabilities by seeing what others may be doing correct and adjusting this to their own knowledge. The Indirect approach is the opposite of what the direct style suggests, but they are both strictly related, meaning you can’t have one without the other. Direct teaching: The instructor stands in front of the class or group and lectures or advises. Indirect teaching: The instructor assumes a more passive role and guides the student interactions. Movement exploration: Incorporates the use of equipment that involves movement. Movement Exploration The movement exploration class is founded on developing a strong, positive association to physical activity. Classes are aimed at developing movement skills and foundational strength through fun and engaging activities. The activities are age appropriate and include games, challenges, and exploration that positively challenge children’s competency while improving their physical capabilities. Skills such as the ability to climb, hold animal shapes, gymnastic style activities, and the introduction to athletic motor skill competencies are the foundations to youth training. This class provides the introduction to strength training to give children the opportunity to learn the skills required to safely and confidently engage in resistance training. Cooperative Skills Cooperative activities teach students to work together for their group's common good. By participating in these activities, students can learn the skills of listening, discussing, thinking as a group, group decision making, and sacrificing individual wants for the common good. There are two primary objectives guiding the teaching of cooperative activities. First, cooperative activities allow students to apply a variety of fundamental motor skills in a unique setting. Students are typically asked to perform motor skills in a specific way, such as “skip in general space” or “balance on one foot and one elbow.” Cooperative activities ask students to perform different activities such as skip with their hands on the shoulders of someone in front of them, walk with big steps while placing their feet on small spots, or walk across an area blindfolded while someone directs their moves. Due to the uniqueness of such experiences, students often find cooperative activities exciting and motivating. Second, cooperative activities are a wonderful medium for teaching social and emotional learning (SEL). SEL offers students an opportunity to understand and manage their emotions. In addition, such activities offer an opportunity to show empathy for others and develop positive relationships. Cooperative activities demand that all students play a role in completing the task or solving the movement problem. Every student, regardless of ability level, is important and contributes to group goals. 9 traits a PE teacher often needs Here are nine essential traits of an effective PE teacher: 1. Athletic ability Athletic ability is an essential trait for a PE teacher because they're often showing kids how to perform exercises. To demonstrate proper form and encourage the kids to continue their fitness education, it's important they can perform the exercises themselves. Having experience with fitness training can enhance a PE teacher's lesson planning because they're familiar with how each exercise affects a person's body. Athletic ability can also refer to an aptitude for sports and games. PE teachers can instruct students on how to play these games or lead after-school activities involving them, like soccer or basketball. An aptitude for sports and games can help a PE teacher encourage students to participate in the activities during class. If the PE teacher enjoys physical activity, they may make the lessons more enjoyable for the student. 2. Teaching ability A PE teacher is a member of a school faculty, so it's essential they have the teaching ability that allows them to communicate lessons to students. There are various skills involved in teaching, including the technical capabilities associated with each professional's particular field. Learning these skills can help PE teacher plan their lessons effectively and connect with their students, meaning they can encourage students to practice fitness skills in optimal ways for their health. Here are some important teaching skills for PE teachers: Having an engaging classroom presence  Real-world learning  Project building  Lesson planning  Technology 3. Interpersonal skills PE coaches are part of faculty teams, so working alongside other teachers is an essential part of their job. They often collaborate with a student's general education teacher to address any behavioral issues that arise. They can also team up with other classes to plan activities for students, like field days and special field trips. Communicating with peers can ensure these interactions remain productive and create opportunities for more fulfilling lessons. Teachers can also model emotional skills for their students by displaying positive social interactions. Interpersonal skills can also help PE teachers interact with students and their families. If a student can make a student feel comfortable expressing their needs and preferences, they can often perform physical exercises or play games to the best of their individual capacities. Understanding how to soothe nerves and support students' emotional needs are important examples of interpersonal skills. When interacting with family members, you may use some of these same techniques to communicate effectively and best uplift students. 4. Written and verbal communication Both verbal and written communication is important for PE teachers because they often communicate with students, families and various personnel on a day-to-day basis. For example, a PE teacher uses their communication skills in a lesson plan to describe any student assignments or expectations accurately. They may also write instructions in a document, then explain them in a classroom lecture. They also use communication skills to share their lesson plans with other PE teachers during conferences or classroom development exercises. Many teachers continue to learn their trade even after working as a teacher for many years. They may share tips with each other or special lessons they've developed if they feel another teacher may benefit from it. Creating a community can help PE teachers continue to expand their teaching methodology and receive feedback on their lessons. 5. Patience and adaptability Working with children can require patience and adaptability because they're encountering many new concepts at the same time and learning how to regulate their emotions. As a result, it's important to treat them with patience and care while they're in your class so they can feel comfortable and feel motivated to complete assignments. As children become teenagers, they may require patience and adaptability to account for their changing bodies and attention spans. Like any job where you perform tasks in real-time, certain circumstances may occur that require you to adapt lesson plans. For example, if the weather turns from sunshine to rain on a day you planned for students to run a mile outside, you may need to adapt the lesson plan so they can practice endurance sports inside a gymnasium instead. 6. Organization PE teachers can use organization skills to improve their lesson planning sessions. For example, they can keep their plans in one place, and determine which parts of a semester or quarter to introduce new concepts. Throughout the year, these objectives may change because of unforeseen setbacks, but organizational skills can help PE teachers control the trajectory of their class curriculum. PE teachers can also use organizational skills to maintain their classroom space. Physical education frequently requires balls, equipment and tools to play games that may be on a lesson plan. They also organize equipment and decide where to store it within their classroom or storage space. 7. Creativity Creativity can help a PE teacher develop fun ways to introduce new material to their students or reinforce previous lessons. They can teach new games or devise interesting ideas to change the rules of a game to help keep students engaged. To find inspiration for their lesson plans, they can turn to personal hobbies or media aspects they enjoy, like movie scenes, songs or dances. A varied lesson plan can foster more engagement among students who prefer action- based learning activities, rather than lectures. 8. Focus Focus is an essential trait of a PE teacher because students often require their full attention during class, especially if they're learning a complicated physical task. You can focus your lesson plans around specific elements of physical education you believe are essential for students of a certain age group or skill level. If students require mentorship, you can also focus on each student's needs to supply them with a steady support system. Focusing on your students can help guide your career purpose. It can give you a core value system that informs your lesson plans and mentorship activities. This passion for your student's well-being can also help you become an advocate for each student in your class. You can also help organize funding for different field trips or establish after-school activities to support their interests. 9. Enthusiasm for teaching sports and fitness Enthusiasm is essential for a PE teacher. Many physical education activities require high energy and may suit someone who enjoys teaching them to others. Being an effective PE teacher also requires an enthusiasm for working with kids and making a positive impact on their lives.

Long ago, people from different cultures had stories about how the world began and how humans came to be. These stories are called creation stories. Even though these cultures were different, their creation stories often had similar ideas. Two creation stories that we will explore are one from Native Americans in North America and one from ancient Greece. Both stories talk about bringing light and fire to people. They also have something called archetypes, which are important in creation stories. Archetypes are things that show up a lot in different stories from different times and places. They can be symbols, patterns, or types of characters. Archetypes help us understand that even though cultures are different, they have some things in common. In these creation stories, there are two archetypal figures - the Raven and Prometheus. They represent things like wanting to learn, make progress, and find enlightenment. Both stories show how these figures go against higher powers to give people something good. The Raven and Prometheus are smart, resourceful, and want to make life better for humans. Understanding archetypes helps us see that cultures have things in common. The Raven and Prometheus are symbols that show what it means to be human. By studying and comparing these symbols, we can learn more about what people believe and want, no matter where they come from. The Raven and Prometheus remind us that people always want to learn, make progress, and find enlightenment. In the Native American creation story, the Raven brings light to the world. Long ago, the world was very dark and people had a hard time finding their way. But then, a clever bird called the Raven decided to help. The Raven stole a box that held the sun, moon, and stars from a powerful being. As the Raven flew across the sky, the box opened and filled the world with light. This light helped guide and teach humans. The Raven is seen as smart, resourceful, and a symbol of light. In the ancient Greek story, Prometheus steals fire from the gods on Mount Olympus. Prometheus cared a lot about humans and wanted to help them. Fire was something special that only the gods had, and it represented knowledge, creativity, and civilization. Prometheus brought fire down to Earth secretly because he knew it would make life better for humans. With fire, they could stay warm, cook food, and protect themselves. Prometheus was brave and kind, and he wanted to help humanity. Both the Raven and Prometheus stories have similarities. They are both about giving humans something important that helps them learn and progress. The Raven gave light, while Prometheus gave fire. The Raven and Prometheus are both very smart and clever. They wanted to make life better for people. These stories show us that no matter where people come from, they all have a desire to learn, make progress, and find enlightenment.

La classificazione dei beni di consumo La scelta della strategia migliore per un dato prodotto dipende dalle caratteristiche del prodotto stesso e dall'obiettivo perseguito dall'impresa nell'ambiente competitivo in cui opera, si stabilisce una distinzione fra 4 sottogruppi: 1) I prodotti d'acquisto corrente (convenience good) sono i beni che il consumatore acquista con il minimo sforzo possibile, di frequente e in piccole quantità, adottando un comportamento d'acquisto abitudinario. Questa categoria può essere suddivisa in: prodotti di prima necessità: sono acquistati regolarmente e includono la maggior parte dei prodotti alimentari, l'acquisto è facilitato dalla fedeltà alla marca e dalla pubblicità ripetitiva. prodotti d'impulso: vengono acquistati senza alcuna premeditazione (patatine);devono essere disponibili in più negozi; la confezione e gli espositori sono importanti per la loro vendita. prodotti d'urgenza: vengono acquistati per soddisfare un bisogno inaspettato e urgente, vanno acquistati nel momento del bisogno quindi devono essere disponibili in diversi tipi di punti vendita (cerotti, disinfettanti ecc.); per questi prodotti, l'impresa non ha scelta: è necessaria la massima copertura del mercato perché, se il cliente non trova il prodotto o la marca desiderata nel momento e nel luogo in cui vuole acquistarla, sceglierà un'altra marca. 2) I prodotti di acquisto ragionato (shopping good) sono prodotti per i qualí si percepisce un livello elevato di rischio, per cui i consumatori investono tempo e impegno per confrontare le caratteristiche di prodotti alternativi, in base a criteri come la qualità, il prezzo, lo stile ecc. es. mobili, abiti... prodotti a prezzo elevato e a bassa frequenza d'acquisto. In questi casi, i clienti potenziali si recano in vari punti vendita prima di decidere l'acquisto e il personale di vendita esercita un'influenza notevole sulla decisione finale. Per questi prodotti è indicata la distribuzione selettiva, in quanto serve la collaborazione del dettagliante e l'ubicazione adeguata del punto vendita. 3) I prodotti esclusivi (specialty good) sono prodotti con caratteristiche uniche; all'acquisto di tali beni il consumatore è pronto a dedicare molti sforzi, si tratta di marche di prodotti di lusso es. auto, alta moda ecc. Per questi prodotti, i clienti non procedono a confronti tra le marche: cercano il punto vendita dove è disponibile il prodotto o la marca desiderata. Il fattore determinante è la fedeltà al prodotto o alla marca, per il produttore di un bene specifico, la distribuzione esclusiva rappresenta la migliore soluzione. 4) I prodotti non ricercati sono quelli che i clienti non conoscono, o quelli che sono noti ma non c'è interesse spontaneo, rientrano, per esempio, apparecchiature per il controllo della temperatura o assicurazioni sulla vita. Questi prodotti non ricercati richiedono sforzi di vendita notevoli e la collaborazione dell'intermediario è indispensabile. 16.6 Le politiche di comunicazione nella rete distributiva Per conseguire gli obiettivi di marketing dell'impresa, è necessaria la collaborazione dei distributori. Per ottenere tale impegno da parte degli intermediari, l'impresa può scegliere 2 politichecomunicative: Le politiche push Consiste nel concentrare gli sforzi di comunicazione e di promozione sugli intermediari, in modo da stimolarli a collaborare con l'azienda, inserire il prodotto nei loro assortimenti, immagazzinarlo in quantità consistenti e garantirgli lo spazio di vendita adeguato. L'obiettivo è quello di sollecitare la collaborazione volontaria del distributore che, a seconda degli incentivi e delle condizioni di vendita che gli vengono proposti (margini elevati, sconti sulle quantità, pubblicità nel punto vendita, budget promozionali, distribuzioni gratuite), tenderà a privilegiare il nostro prodotto, quindi è indispensabile un programma di incentivi. Il rischio di questa strategia è che potrebbe rendere l'impresa dipendente dall'intermediario, che ne controlla l'accesso al mercato. Le politiche pull Consiste nel tagliare fuori gli intermediari e cercare di costruire la domanda dell'impresa rivolgendosi direttamente ai potenziali consumatori nel segmento target. L'obiettivo comunicativo è quello di creare una forte domanda da parte del consumatore finale e di sviluppare la fedeltà alla marca in modo che il distributore sia costretto a inserirla nel proprio assortimento, per soddisfare le richieste del consumatore. Sono necessarie spese sulla comunicazione in pubblicità sui media, promozioni ai consumatori e altri mezzi di mkt diretto, se si ha successo, il produttore avrà il potere d'influenzare i partecipanti al canale distributivo e di indurli a prendere in carico la marca.. Procter & Gamble adotta una politica pull per lanciare i nuovi prodotti. Però questa politica richiede ingenti risorse finanziarie per coprire i costi delle campagne pubblicitarie, si tratta di costi fissi mentre adottando una politica push, i costi sono proporzionali ai volumi di vendita e diventano più sostenibili, in particolare per le piccole imprese. Una politica pull va considerata un investimento a lungo termine: l'obiettivo dell'impresa è quello di creare un capitale di reputazione, il cosiddetto "brand equity". In pratica le due politiche di comunicazione sono utilizzate insieme. 16.7 L'analisi dei costi di distribuzione I costi di distribuzione sono misurati dalla differenza tra il prezzo unitario di vendita pagato dal consumatore finale e il prezzo pagato al produttore dal primo acquirente. Il margine di distribuzione s'identifica dunque con il concetto di valore aggiunto del canale distributivo. Laddove più intermediari intervengono nel processo distributivo, il margine di distribuzione è costituito dalla somma dei margini del diversi Intermediari. I margini di distribuzione Si esprime in termini percentuali, si calcola sia in rapporto al costo d'acquisto (C), sia in rapporto al prezzo di vendita (P). Si parla di margine di distribuzione (D) come di mark-up (o "ricarico") e di"sconto". Abbiamo diverse formule di calcolo: Costi di distribuzione (CD) ➨ CD = Pcf - Ppa Pcf = prezzo pagato dal consumatore finale Ppa = prezzo pagato al produttore dal primo acquirente Margine di distribuzione (MD) = volume d’affari del canale (VA) MD = ∑ md n md = Pv - Pa n = margini dei diversi intermediari In un sistema di distribuzione indiretto, il margine di distribuzione è uguale alla somma dei margini dei distributori IL MARGINE DEL DISTRIBUTORE (D) = prezzo di vendita - costo d'acquisto = D = P - C IL MARGINE DI DISTRIBUZIONE IN PERCENTUALE sul prezzo di vendita (sconto): D* = P-C / P sul costo di acquisto (mark-up): D° = P-C / C REGOLE DI EQUIVALENZA D*= D° /1 + D° D° = D* /1 - D* Calcolo del prezzo di vendita al cliente Costo di acquisto = 90€; Sconto = 25% Prezzo di vendita al dettaglio = 90€/ (1 - 0,25) = 90€/0,75 = 120€ I margini di distribuzione sono espressi in relazione al prezzo di vendita, ma la prassi può variare fra un settore e l'altro e fra un'impresa e l'altra, inoltre dipende dalla posizione occupata dall'intermediario nella rete e remunera la funzione o le funzioni esercitate. In alcuni casi, l'intermediario beneficia di più margini. Confronto tra prezzo di listino, di fattura e finale I margini di distribuzione costituiscono solo una parte del margine totale, bisogna distinguere tra; ➤prezzo di listino è il prezzo ufficiale, pubblicato nel tariffario o nel listino dell'azienda. ➤prezzo di fattura è il prezzo di listino al netto delle deduzioni "in fattura" che andrebbero conteggiate in aggiunta allo sconto standard per il distributore, per esempio, di sconti speciali al distributore, sconti all'utente finale e promozioni in fattura. ➤prezzo finale è il prezzo di fattura senza le deduzioni "aggiunte fuori fattura", come lo sconto per i pagamenti in contanti, i costi del conto clienti, le indennità, i rimborsi, i programmi promozionali fuori fattura e le spese di spedizione, inoltre confezioni speciali o supporto tecnico.. sottraendo dal prezzo finale il costo di questi servizi si ottiene il margine finale, ossia la misura della redditività del prodotto. Confronto fra costi di distribuzione Il margine di distribuzione remunera le funzioni e i compiti della distribuzione assunti dagli intermediari. Nel canale indiretto lungo, la maggior parte dei compiti fisici di distribuzione (stoccaggio e trasporto) sono svolti dai grossisti e i costi sono proporzionali al volume d'affari del fabbricante e coperti dal margine del grossista e del distributore. Il produttore deve mantenere un servizio commerciale minimo, con spese fisse a suo carico ridotte però l'impresa esercita un controllo scarso sull'organizzazione di vendita. Nel canale indiretto breve, la quota di spese fisse diventa preponderante rispetto al costo totale di distribuzione; il fabbricante deve sostenere le spese della distribuzione fisica, organizzare una rete di magazzini e un'amministrazione delle vendite, sugli oneri finanziari prodotti dalla gestione delle scorte e del conto vendita della clientela, come pure la funzione di vendita. L'adozione di questo canale implica per il fabbricante, un rischio finanziario maggiore, però l'impresa è in grado di esercitare un miglior controllo sulla propria organizzazione commerciale, essendo in contatto diretto con la domanda finale. L'indice di redditività di ciascuno di essi si calcolerà nel modo seguente: R = volume d'affari - costi di distribuzione /costi di distribuzione dove R rappresenta una valutazione dell'indice di redditività previsto, tenendo conto dell'insieme dei costi che ogni canale comporta. 16.8 L'impatto di internet sulle decisioni di distribuzione Internet sta migliorando l'efficienza dei mercati, creando situazioni prossime alla concorrenza pura o perfetta, l'impresa che controlla l'accesso dei prodotti sul mercato possiede un importante vantaggio competitivo. Nell'e-business, invece di vendere ciò che produce, l'impresa virtuale vende ciò che può offrire, non importa chi provvederà al processo di fabbricazione dei prodotti. La tentazione di disintermediazione Internet potrebbe consentire alle imprese di trattare direttamente con il cliente finale, scavalcando le reti di distribuzione esistenti e riducendo i costi di transazione, si definisce disintermediazione. Prima di considerare la disintermediazione, è utile verificare se ciascuna applicazione online "completa" o "sostituisce" le operazioni offline, in molti casi, la soluzione migliore è data da una combinazione delle due, promuovendo in tal modo la complementarietà. Andare contemporaneamente online e offline? Offrendo gli stessi prodotti agli stessi clienti, con la stessa marca contemporaneamente online e offline, si possono generare dei forti conflitti di canale, possono essere: Conflitti interni ⟹ quelli tra due o più canali di commercializzazione impiegati dall'impresa; esistono 4 tipi di conflitti interni: 1. Cannibalizzazione tra canali: la creazione di un nuovo canale di vendita può determinare una ridistribuzione del volume complessivo di vendite tra i canali, che si traduce in una cannibalizzazione dei canali esistenti, a favore di quelli nuovi. 2. Sottoutilizzazione delle infrastrutture fisiche: i canali di vendita al dettaglio necessitano di Investimenti in beni materiali come negozi, uffici... L'ottimizzazione del numero, delle dimensioni e dell'utilizzazione di queste risorse è importante, se volumi consistenti di vendite vengono spostati online, l'equilibrio potrebbe saltare, con un impatto negativo sui costi totali. 3. Discriminazione di prezzo tra I canali: l'impresa che utilizza anche un canale di distribuzione online si troverà a competere con imprese che operano esclusivamente su Web e che hanno costi e prezzi più bassi, ciò la spingerà a ridurre i prezzi online, causando possibili problemi con i propri clienti tradizionali, i quali potrebbero ritenere di pagare troppo offline. 4. Desincronizzazione dei canali: i clienti non distinguono tra i canali di vendita per la stessa marca, ma selezionano semplicemente il canale più conveniente, aspettandosi un certo grado di integrazione tra l'online e l'offline. Conflitti esterni ⟹ quando operatori terzi indipendenti sono coinvolti nella rete distributiva. 1. Eliminare i dettaglianti tradizionali: nel momento in cui i canali online tolgono volume d'affari ai canali tradizionali, questi ultimi possono ritirare il loro supporto ai prodotti dell'azienda e passare alla concorrenza. 2. Perdere Il controllo del canale: I produttori cercano di controllare i canali che utilizzano, impostando delle quote di vendita per area o per regione e fornendo linee guida rigorose in materia di presentazione e promozione del prodotto, è difficile mantenere lo stesso controllo sul canali online. 3. Spostamento del valore a monte: la fornitura di servizi e di informazioni direttamente da parte dei produttori riduce il ruolo e il valore aggiunto dei rivenditori, le cui funzioni sono limitate alle attività di distribuzione fisica, che sono peraltro le più costose. Esistono delle opzioni per conciliare i canali online e non, che riducono i potenziali conflitti: • inserire sul sito web dell'impresa una presentazione e un catalogo di prodotti senza listino prezzi, in modo, tale che i distributori percepiscono il sito come supporto promozionale; • usare nel sito web lo stesso prezzo di mercato, ma aggiungere le spese di consegna, mantenendo attraente l'offerta del distributore tradizionale; • vendere sul sito web, ma riconoscendo una provvigione ai distributori situati nella zona geografica in cui il prodotto è venduto; • adottare la stessa politica di prezzo dei distributori.

VERSO 1 A metà del corso medio della vita umana, mi ritrovai in una foresta buia, perché avevo smarrito la giusta strada. Ahimè, quanto è difficile descrivere l’aspetto di questa foresta inospitale, intricata e difficile [da attraversare], a tal punto che al solo pensiero si rinnova in me la paura. [la selva] È tanto angosciante che la morte lo è giusto poco di più; ma per descrivere il bene che io trovai in essa, parlerò [prima] delle altre cose che vi ho visto. VERSO 10 Non so descrivere il modo in cui io vi entrai, tanto ero intorpidito nel momento in cui abbandonai la via della verità. Ma dopo che giunsi ai piedi di un colle, nel luogo in cui finiva quella valle che aveva turbato di paura il mio cuore, guardai verso l’alto e vidi la sua vetta già illuminata dai raggi di quel pianeta [il Sole] che conduce ogni uomo sulla giusta strada. Allora si acquietò un po’ la paura che a lungo era rimasta nel profondo del mio cuore durante la notte trascorsa nell’angoscia. VERSO 22 E come colui [il naufrago] che con respiro affaticato, uscito dal mare e giunto a riva, si volta verso le acque pericolose e le guarda, così il mio animo, che ancora era in fuga, si voltò indietro a guardare quel luogo che non aveva mai lasciato passar vivo alcun uomo. Dopo che ebbi fatto riposare un po' il corpo stanco, ripresi il cammino lungo il pendio deserto [del colle], in modo che il piede stabile [quello di appoggio] era sempre il più basso [dei due]. VERSO 31 Ed ecco [apparire], quasi all'inizio della salita, una lonza snella e molto agile, ricoperta di pelo maculato; e non si scansava da davanti al mio viso, anzi bloccava a tal punto il mio cammino che più volte mi girai per tornare indietro. Era il principio del mattino, e il sole sorgeva insieme a quella costellazione che lo accompagnava quando Dio (l’amor divino) creò inizialmente gli astri (quelle cose belle); così che erano motivo di speranza per me contro quella bestia dalla pelle screziata l’ora del giorno e la dolcezza della primavera; ma non al punto che non mi incutesse paura la visione che mi apparve di un leone. Questo sembrava procedere contro di me con la testa alta e con una fame rabbiosa, al punto che sembrava far tremare l'aria. VERSO 49 Ed una lupa, che di tutti i desideri sembrava piena pur nella sua magrezza, e che già aveva costretto molti uomini a vivere nella miseria, questa mi procurò un tale angoscia per la paura che si sprigionava dal suo aspetto, che io persi la speranza di raggiungere la cima del colle. E come colui che avidamente accumula denaro, e poi arriva il momento che gli fa perdere tutto, al punto che nell'animo si rattrista e piange; così mi ridusse la belva insaziabile e irrequieta, che, venendomi incontro, a poco a poco mi respingeva là dove il sole non fa luce [nella selva]. VERSO 61 Mentre precipitavo verso il basso, mi si offrì alla vista uno che, per via di un lungo silenzio, mi sembrava fosse senza voce. Quando lo vidi in quel luogo deserto e solitario, «Abbi pietà di me», gli gridai, «chiunque tu sia, fantasma o uomo reale!» Mi rispose: «Non sono un uomo [vivo], lo sono già stato, e i miei genitori furono lombardi, entrambi mantovani per nascita. Nacqui sotto Giulio Cesare, sebbene troppo tardi, e vissi a Roma sotto l’impero del buon Augusto, al tempo degli dèi falsi e ingannatori. Fui un poeta, e scrissi di quel giusto figlio di Anchise proveniente da Troia, dopo che la superba Ilio venne bruciata. Ma tu, perché ritorni al tanto dolore [della selva]? Perché non scali il piacevole colle che è origine e causa di totale gioia? VERSO 79 «Sei dunque tu quel Virgilio, quella sorgente che diffonde un così abbondante fiume di eloquenza?», gli risposi con il capo umilmente chinato. «Oh, gloria e luminosa guida per gli altri poeti, mi sia d’aiuto l'assiduo studio e il grande amore che mi ha spinto a leggere la tua opera. Tu sei il mio maestro e il mio autore [di riferimento], da te solo ho appreso lo stile elevato che mi ha dato prestigio. Guarda la belva a causa della quale mi voltai indietro; dammi il tuo aiuto contro di lei, famoso sapiente, poiché essa mi fa tremare le vene e i polsi». VERSO 121. Alle quali (cioè alle anime beate) poi, se tu vorrai salire, ti condurrà un'anima più degna di me: ti lascerò a lei quando me ne andrò; poiché quell'Imperatore che regna lassù [Dio], per via del fatto che fui ribelle alla sua legge, non vuole che io entri nella sua città [il Paradiso]. Egli regna in ogni luogo e qui [nell’Empireo] dimora; questa è la sua città e il suo trono: felice è colui che [Dio] vi destina». Ed io gli dissi: «Poeta, io ti chiedo in nome di quel Dio che tu non hai conosciuto, affinché io mi allontani da questo male [il peccato] e da quello ancor peggiore [la dannazione], che tu mi conduca là dove dicesti, affinché io veda la porta di San Pietro e coloro i quali tu descrivi tanto tristi». [Virgilio] allora si mise in cammino, ed io lo seguii.

The Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569) Most people in the North remained loyal to the Catholic noble families who controlled the north and their Catholic faith. When Elizabeth came to power, she promoted ‘new men’ (Protestants) from the gentry and the powerful Catholic nobles lost their power and influence. This led them to organise the most serious rebellion of Elizabeth’s reign in 1569. Why did the Northern Earl’s revolt? The Earls had lost their power when Elizabeth became Queen (and wanted it back). They wanted Catholicism restored in England (and felt that ordinary Catholics would support it). Elizabeth was refusing to marry or to name an heir, causing uncertainty about England’s future. Mary Queen of Scots (if freed from prison) could replace Elizabeth and solve all these problems Who were the key players in the Revolt? Earl of Northumberland • A Catholic who had held an important position under Mary I. • He lost a lot of influence under Elizabeth (as she favoured Protestant gentry) • Elizabeth also took the rights to a valuable copper mine found on his lands Earl of Westmorland • From a rich Catholic family in the north Also the Duke of Norfolk’s brother in law Duke of Norfolk • England’s most senior Protestant noble, but he had very close links to old northern Catholic families, & was sympathetic to them & greedy for power. • He hated William Cecil & Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (Elizabeth’s favourite) who were Protestant and from the gentry • He planned to marry Mary QS, but later backed down and urged the earls to call off the rebellion. Mary also supported the plan to marry him What role did religion play? (7/10 – but only because it was linked to power) • Most northerners held onto their Catholic beliefs & although Elizabeth didn’t persecute them, they knew that she wanted their religion to gradually die out, so they supported the revolt. • In 1561 Elizabeth hired a strict Protestant as archbishop of Durham to promote Protestantism in the north, but he was unpopular & turned many northerners against the Protestant religion. What role did politics/power play? (9/10 – this was the most important cause of the revolt) • The Northern Earls lost a lot of their power/influence (even jobs/money under Elizabeth) • Northumberland was jealous of new Protestant families being given top jobs in the North • William Cecil & Robert Dudley were not from ancient noble families, but were very close to the Queen, so the northern Earls resented them getting top jobs in her Government • Elizabeth also confiscated large areas of land & the profits from their copper mines • It is possible, that had Elizabeth allowed the Catholic Northern Earls to keep their jobs, money and influence at court, they may have ‘tolerated’ her as a Protestant Queen (greedy/selfish). What role did Mary Queen of Scots and the Succession play? • Elizabeth was refusing to name an heir and it was becoming clear that she would not marry • If Mary Queen of Scots married the Duke of Norfolk, England would have an heir and England would be Catholic again. The country would be stable without people competing for power. • However, some of Elizabeth’s courtiers got worried that it might not work and that it might lead to charges of treason (punishable by death) • So by September 1569, Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester) decided to tell Elizabeth about the plot. By this time it was much more serious than simply marrying Norfolk to Mary. • Mary QS had secretly asked Spain to send troops to help the rebellion & overthrow Elizabeth Plan for the Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569) • The Earls of Northumberland & Westmorland will raise rebel troops from their lands in the north and take control of Durham. • The rebels will then march south towards London to join with the Duke of Norfolk • 1000s of Spanish troops will land in England to support the rebel forces • The Duke of Norfolk & rebel forces will seize control of Government & overthrow Elizabeth • Mary Queen of Scots is to be freed, ready to marry the Duke of Norfolk Key Events of the Revolt • Once Elizabeth knew of the plot, Norfolk was arrested and sent to the Tower of London • The Northern Earls were worried they would be executed for their involvement and in a desperate attempt to avoid punishment, pushed ahead with the revolt • They raised an army of ordinary Catholics and took control of Durham cathedral • Catholic mass was celebrated across the north for 2 weeks. • They then headed south, to try and free Mary • Mary QSs was moved south to Coventry on the orders of Elizabeth, so she couldn’t escape • The rebellion failed as Spanish troops never arrived • Elizabeth’s friend (Earl of Sussex) had raised an army of 7,000 men to defend her throne. Results: • The rebellion was a serious threat to Elizabeth • She executed 450 rebels in the north • Northumberland was executed in 1572 & his head was put on a spike on the city gate • The Privy Council called for the Duke of Norfolk’s execution too, but Elizabeth released him. • Mary Queen of Scots was kept in prison for the next 14 years. • The failed plot also led the Pope to take action against Elizabeth • In 1570 he excommunicated Elizabeth from the Catholic Church • He also issued a Papal Bull (order) calling on all loyal Catholics to overthrow her hoping it would encourage another rebellion. • In 1571 Elizabeth called parliament to pass an Act making it treason to claim that she was not the rightful Queen and to bring in/print papal bulls in England. The Significance of the Revolt of the Northern Earls • It was the first and most serious rebellion by English Catholics against Elizabeth • Treason laws were made much harsher • It ended the influence of the powerful Catholic Earls in the North • It led to harsher treatment of Catholics, e.g. 1572 Elizabeth sent the Earl of Huntingdon (strict Protestant) to the north to carry out laws against Catholics (and suppress Catholicism). • Although Elizabeth’s brutal revenge on the rebels show how serious a threat it was, most Catholics in the north stayed loyal, but the Pope’s Papal Bull now put their loyalty in doubt There was little support for the revolt among the rest of the Catholic nobility and ordinary people. When faced with a choice between Elizabeth and their religion, most Catholics chose to support the Queen. 1569, was the last time English Catholics tried to remove Elizabeth by force. The future plots against her were always uncovered by Cecil & Walsingham, before they had a chance to get any public support. Despite this, the Northern Revolt & Papal Bull changed Elizabeth’s attitude towards Catholics who were now seen as potential traitors. From 1570, Elizabeth became less tolerant of recusants (people refusing to attend her church) & took increasingly tough measures against Catholics. The Ridolfi, Throckmorton & Babington plots • In the 1870s-80s, there were 3 Catholic plots to assassinate Elizabeth & replace her with Mary. • The plots were supported by France, Spain, the Pope and some Catholic nobles. • They reinforced the form Mary & from Catholics at home and abroad. Also the threat from Spain. The Ridolfi Plot (1571) • Ridolfi was an Italian banker living in England and a spy for the Pope. • He organised a plot to murder Eliz, marry Mary QS to the Duke of Norfolk & make her Queen. • The Pope & King Philip supported the plot & Philip told the Duke of Alba in the Netherlands to prepare 10,000 troops (but to only invade AFTER the English had overthrown Elizabeth). • The plot failed because Sir William Cecil intercepted coded letters & Norfolk was executed. • Mary was kept under closer watch. • Ridolfi was abroad when the plot was discovered and never returned to England. 1574: Catholic Priests and Priest Holes • From 1574 Catholic priests were smuggled into England to keep the religion alive. • They stayed with rich Catholic families, so Catholic families were kept under surveillance. • Catholic homes were raided – to find ‘priest holes’ where Catholic priests were hiding. • Catholic priests who were found could be hung, drawn and quartered (although not all were) • In 1581, Parliament also passed 2 new tougher laws against Catholics: • Recusants would be fined £20 (which would bankrupt most families) • Trying to convert people to Catholicism was now treason (punishable by death) The Throckmorton Plot (1583) • It aimed to assassinate Elizabeth and replace her with Mary. The French Duke of Guise (Mary’s cousin) would invade England with an army, funded by King Philip (Pope also supported it). • An Englishman, Throckmorton carried messages between Mary & Catholic plotters abroad. • Sir Walsingham (Secretary of State) uncovered the plot after his agents found the plans for the plot in Throckmorton’s house. Throckmorton confessed under torture and was executed. Significance: • The plots showed that Mary’s presence in England posed a serious threat • It also showed that France & Spain were a serious threat (& could invade) • Throckmorton’s papers showed a list of Catholic supporters in England, so the threat from English Catholics was also real • 1,000s of Catholics were imprisoned or kept under surveillance/house arrest • In 1585 another Act was passed to make helping Catholic priests punishable by death. • The Bond of Association was signed by the English nobles & gentry & forced them to promise to execute anyone who tried to overthrow the Queen. Weaknesses of the Plots The plots lacked public support & were uncovered by informers & spies before they had the chance to work King Philip was reluctant to destroy his alliance with Elizabeth (France was still a bigger rival) so is support for the plots was half-hearted, he rarely followed through on his promises to help the plotters or send an army The Babington Plot (1586) In 1586, Walsingham used his spy network to PROVE that Mary supported the Babington plot. His evidence persuaded Elizabeth to put Mary on trial & execute her for treason. • This was a plot to murder Elizabeth and put Mary on the throne • France would invade England with 60,000 men and Spain would also send an army • Babington was passing coded letters between Mary & her supporters in England & Europe. • But all of her letters were being intercepted and read by Walsingham. • Walsingham used his spies to follow every stage of the plot & had the letters decoded • One of Mary’s letters approved plans to murder the Queen and free Mary from prison • They also contained the names of 6 Catholics who planned to kill Elizabeth • They were arrested, hung, drawn and quartered for treason. • Mary had been implicated in plots before, but Elizabeth was always reluctant to execute her • But the proof found by Walsingham finally persuaded her to put Mary on trial • In October 1586, Mary was found guilty & was sentenced to death • But Elizabeth still hesitated, and did not sign the death warrant until February 1587. Significance 1) This plot was very significant because by 1585 England was effectively at war with Spain since Elizabeth had sent her army to help the Dutch Protestants fight the Spanish 2) This meant that Elizabeth’ situation was more dangerous than during previous plots. 3) Elizabeth’s government also became more determined to crush Catholicism 4) 1000s of recusants were arrested & 31 priests were executed 5) Mary’s execution removed the Catholic threat at home 6) English Catholics had no one to rally around, & lost hope of overthrowing Elizabeth 7) But Mary’s death increased the threat of a foreign invasion as England was at war with Spain and King Philip had been preparing an attack on England since 1585 8) Mary’s death made Philip even more determined to invade, Mary had left her claim to the English throne to King Philip upon her death Why was Mary Queen of Scots finally executed? 1 • A new Act in 1585 stated that in the event of Elizabeth’s assassination, Mary could be executed as long as she had been proved guilty & Walsingham had provided hard proof. 2 • Another reason was that by 1587, it was clear that Philip was planning to invade England • There were rumours that Spanish ships had landed in Wales & that Mary had escaped. This convinced Elizabeth that Mary had to be executed if she wanted to keep her throne. Walsingham’s Spy Network: • Walsingham (Secretary of State from 1573) had a network of spies all over England & abroad. He had spies in every English town, some were normal people paid to spy on neighbours. • He also had agents and spies in Spain, France, Germany and Italy • He hired mathematicians to crack written codes and people to open/seal letters secretly • He also pressured captured Catholic priests to spy on others for him in return for a pardon. • He used double agents to infiltrate Catholic networks - to help him discover traitors • But he only used torture against Catholic priests caught in England in the most serious cases • But 130 priests and 60 of their supporters were still executed during Elizabeth’s reign. Why did Relations with Spain get worse (1569-1588) • England had tried to stay on good terms with Spain, because Eliz wanted to avoid an expensive war that could lead to her being overthrown (English Catholics could support it) • But by the 1570s, Elizabeth wanted to have an empire of her own. • She also needed to make more money to defend her country and throne (by improving trade) • This religious, political and economic rivalry led to growing tensions between England & Spain Political and Religious Rivalry 1) Land abroad, gave countries wealth/power. By the 1580s, Eliz wanted an empire to rival Spain’s (especially as Spain had supported the Catholic plots against Eliz – even if it was half-hearted) 2) Religion was another cause of conflict. Philip opposed Elizabeth’s religious settlement 1559 3) Luckily for Elizabeth, in the 1550s Spain & France were competing to be the greatest European power and both wanted England as an ally against the other. 4) But from 1567, Spanish ships were sailing to the Netherlands with money for the Alba’s army 5) This alarmed English Protestants and Elizabeth’s Privy Council who put more and more pressure on her to send an army to help the Dutch Protestant rebels (in the Netherlands). Economic (commercial) Rivalry: The New World, privateers and Sir Francis Drake • Under Elizabeth, English merchants wanted to make big profits in the New World (Americas). • However, trading in the New World was difficult because of Spain’s power 1) Spain controlled most of the New World where there were huge profits to be made and anyone who wanted to trade there needed a licence from Spain (which it would not give): 2) But the Americas had valuable crops like tobacco, sugar, and also silver and gold 3) Elizabeth secretly encouraged privateers to trade illegally & raid Spanish ports & ships 4) At first Elizabeth denied responsibility for their actions, which delaye war with Spain Sir Francis Drake: Elizabeth sends Drake to rob Spanish colonies and ships (which infuriates Spain) 1) Spain’s support for the Ridolfi plot (1571) made her more willing to support Drake • In 1572 Eliz hired Drake to sail to the New World & steal £40,000 of Spanish silver • In 1577 she sent Drake back again with a secret mission to rob Spain’s colonies/ships • Drake brought back £400,000 of Spanish treasure & claimed an area of California in Elizabeth’s name (New Albion). He gave a lot of this money to Elizabeth • He boosted England’s finances at a time of growing concern over Spain’s threat • He became famous as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. • Eliz knighted Drake as a reward, which infuriated Philip (as he saw Drake as a pirate) • Drake’s actions & his claim to California made it clear that England did not accept Spain’s domination of the New World. Elizabeth’s Support for the Dutch Rebels led to War with Spain (1585-88) • By the 1580s, tension between England & Spain had reached boiling point • At first, Eliz refused to send her army to help the Dutch rebels, because she wanted to avoid a war with Spain. So she tried to get the Spanish to leave the Netherlands in other INDIRECT ways: 1) By allowing Drake (& other English privateers) to attack and rob Spanish ships and colonies 2) By encouraging others (the French heir/mercenaries) to fight the Spanish in the Netherlands • In the 1570s, Elizabeth promised to marry the heir to the French throne (the Duke of Alencon) so that he would take an army to fight the Spanish in the Netherlands The Spanish Fury (1576) and the Pacification of Ghent (1576) • By 1576, the Spanish Govt in the Netherlands was bankrupt (the war was expensive) • After months without pay, Spain’s soldiers violently robbed Dutch towns in the “Spanish Fury” Spanish troops rebelling and robbing cities in the Netherlands in 1576. This united the Dutch Protestants & Catholics against Spain. They drew up the ‘Pacification of Ghent’ (demanding that): • Spanish troops leave the Netherlands • Spain allows the Dutch to rule themselves • The persecution of Dutch Protestants stops What did Elizabeth do? • Elizabeth sent £100,000 to help the Dutch rebels • In 1577 King Philip’s brother, Don Juan agreed to the rebels demands (but this was a trick) as just 6 months later Philip sent an even bigger army to attack the Dutch. • Elizabeth then hired a mercenary army of 6000 English & Scottish volunteers to help the Dutch. • But her plan backfired because the mercenaries destroyed Dutch Catholic churches, which caused the Catholics to make peace with Spain. • In 1578, her Privy Council urged Eliz to send her official army to help the Dutch, but she refused. The Dutch were disappointed & turned to France for help. The French Duke of Alencon arrived with an army to fight the Spanish, but by 1579 Spain had taken control again. • In 1580 Spain got even stronger after Philip won control of Portugal & its empire. • So Elizabeth gave the Duke of Alencon £70,000 to help him fight the Spanish • In 1582, Alencon took his army the Netherlands but failed to defeat Spain. • Elizabeth’s foreign policy in the Netherlands had failed & she had only managed to annoy Spain 1585: Why did Eliz finally decide to send her army to the Netherlands? (she lost her 2 main allies) • 1584 the Duke of Alencon died (so he could no longer fight the Spanish in the Netherlands) • 1 month later, William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch Protestant rebels was assassinated. • In 1585, Spain signed the Treaty of Joinville with France, agreeing to stamp out Protestantism in France/Europe meaning France & Spain were now allies against Protestantism • Elizabeth now felt she had no choice but to send her official army to the Netherlands • She signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch rebels which promised them military help 1585: Robert Dudley’s campaign in the Netherlands was unsuccessful She sent 7,400 man army to the Netherlands led by Dudley. But he accepted the title of ‘Governor General’. Eliz was angry as it suggested that she had deposed King Philip so she told Dudley to resign this position. His army was defeated by the bigger Spanish Army as Eliz had not provided him with enough money to win. In 1587 Dudley resigned and returned to England. At the same time, Eliz had sent Drake to raid Spanish colonies in the New World to disrupt King Philip’s flow of money. Philip was furious and told the Pope he planned to invade England at the end of 1585. Drake singes the King of Spain’s beard 1587 • In 1587 Elizabeth ordered Drake to attack Spain’s most important port Cadiz • He destroyed 30 ships in 3 days – known as the ‘Singeing of the King of Spain’s Beard’ • He also stole lots of wood, meaning the Armada did not have quality barrels for food/water • Drake’s disruption delayed the Armada by a year (& meant that its food rotted in 1588). • This bought England more time to prepare for war. The Spanish Armada (1588) The Plan • By 1588, the Spanish Armada was ready to invade England • It had 130 ships with 8000 sailors & 18,000 soldiers • The Duke of Medina Sidonia would lead the Armada, but he had little experience at sea and didn’t want the job • The Armada would collect Parma’s army from France & sail to England under the protection of the Armada’s warships • Parma would march to London to depose Elizabeth & impose a Catholic government in England. 1) The Armada reached the English Channel The Armada set out in May 1588, but was delayed for a few weeks by bad weather In July the Armada was near England & signal fires were lit to warn Elizabeth English ships set sail to meet the Armada The Armada sailed up the channel in a crescent (half moon) formation, to use the large armed galleons to protect the weaker supply and army ships The English navy carried out a few minor raids, but did not inflict much damage Only 2 Spanish ships were lost (by accident) 2) The English attack the Spanish at Calais (with fire ships) and at Gravelines The Armada sailed up the English channel & anchored at Calais to wait for Parma’s army But Parma’s men didn't reach the coast in time (news had reached them too late) At midnight, the English sent 8 fireships into the Spanish ships causing panic They cut their anchors, broke formation & headed for the open sea (without Parma) The Spanish ships sailed to Gravelines, but bad weather stopped them returning to Calais The English attacked and the battle lasted many hours (5 Spanish ships were sunk) The rest were forced to sail away from France towards Scotland The English ships followed them to make sure they didn’t come back to collect Parma’s army 3) The Armada’s Journey back to Spain around Ireland was a disaster The Spanish called off the attack and returned to Spain around Scotland & Ireland Bad storms sank many ships and wrecked more on the Irish coast Many sailors died from starvation & disease – less than half the men made it back to Spain How did England defeat the Spanish Armada? !) Faster Ships • Years before the battle, England had started building smaller, faster ships (galleons) that could fire canon balls quicker & further than Spanish ships • Spanish ships were huge and slow to change direction. 2) Bad Planning & Communication (Spanish) • Philip’s plan to join with the Duke of Parma’s army in France was risky. • Parma had lots of small ships which took 48 hours to load, man and set sail. • It took too long (a week) for word to reach Parma that Medina was in the English Channel, by which time Medina had set sail to Calais. • Parma was not ready to set sail & the English were already ready to attack (leaving Medina with very little back up when anchored in France). 2) English Tactics were more effective • Spanish ships aimed to come alongside the English ones, jump on board & fight the enemy. But the English ships were faster & kept a safe distance. • They chased the Armada down the Channel, with heavy cannon fire, which forced the Spanish to arrive in France before Parma’s army was ready • As the Armada was waiting, the English sent fireships into the Spanish fleet. • This caused the Armada to panic, cut their anchors & sail away to the north • When the Spanish ships regrouped, the English attacked them in the Battle of Gravelines & the Armada was forced to sail north, chased by faster ships. 5) Bad Weather • Strong winds made it impossible for the Armada to return & pick up Parma’s army and storms wrecked or sunk Spanish ships as they tried to return home along the Scottish-Irish coasts. 2) Spanish Supplies • The Armada was not well supplied with food/weapons. Drake’s attack on Cadiz port in 1587 had destroyed food barrels. Delays in setting sail meant that by the time the English attacked the Armada it had been at sea for 10 weeks and had rotting food. 1000s died from starvation/disease. The consequences of the English victory? • Victory over the Spanish Armada gave Elizabeth a great propaganda victory • A new portrait was made, and a medal was made to commemorate her victory, it said “God blew and they were scattered”. • Elizabeth claimed that God was on the side of Protestantism • This led to a feeling of English pride and encouraged the Dutch rebels to renew their fight against the Spanish • The defeat of the Armada showed the strength of the English navy and gave England the confidence to trade and explore more widely at sea • Although Philip did not give up and continued the war for the rest of Elizabeth’s reign, the defeat had cost Spain dearly, both financially and in terms of its power • The Armada marked the start of a long decline in Spain’s power and fortunes. • English ships were sent on voyages of discovery and set up valuable new trade routes • By the end of Elizabeth’s reign, the navy was also trying to set up a new colony in Virginia • The English victory boosted Elizabeth’s popularity & strengthened the Protestant cause

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