why is plastic used in aircraft and spaceships?

plastics are lighter compared to metals

for fun plastics can be recycled

Synthetic fibres and Plastics

Create a comprehension quiz for the following vocabulary; To be getting on in age: Growing older; advancing in years. Pet peeve: Something that annoys or bothers someone significantly. Pinhead: A small-minded or foolish person. Nit-pick: To find fault with small or trivial details. Whilst/while: During the time that; at the same time as. On a dig: Engaged in archaeological excavation. Mad vs crazy: "Mad" typically refers to anger or insanity, while "crazy" can denote insanity or extreme enthusiasm. Twitch: A sudden, quick movement or spasm. Dreamt/dreamed: Past tense forms of the verb "to dream." Eaves: The part of a roof that overhangs the walls. Burly man: A strong, muscular man. She’s a looker: A woman who is attractive or visually appealing. Breech birth: A birth in which the baby is delivered feet first instead of head first. Being too forward: Acting too boldly or presumptuously. Gooey: Soft and sticky, often used to describe certain textures or emotional situations. Spare tire: Excess fat around the waistline; a protruding belly. Twists and turns of fate: Unexpected changes or developments in life. Pompous: Self-important or arrogant. Play a prank on someone: To carry out a mischievous trick or joke on someone. Scamps: Mischievous or playful individuals, often used affectionately. To tend one's resignation: To formally submit one's resignation from a job. A sound judgment: A wise or rational decision. To set someone up with someone else: To arrange a meeting or date between two people. Loon: A colloquial term for a crazy or eccentric person. Duvet: A type of blanket filled with feathers, down, or synthetic fibers, used as a bed covering. Don't Meddle: Do not interfere or intervene. Croquet mallet: A hammer-like instrument used to strike croquet balls. Cut it out: Stop doing something annoying or inappropriate. Pop over: Visit briefly or unexpectedly. It was a riot: It was extremely funny or enjoyable. Spit Tspat spat: Sounds indicating a quick, spat-out expulsion of saliva. A hoot: Something that is amusing or enjoyable. Overhear: To unintentionally hear what others are saying without their knowledge. You're quite a package: You possess many appealing qualities or attributes. I'm quite a catch: I am an attractive or desirable partner. Limper: A person who walks with a limp. A hanky: A handkerchief, a small piece of cloth carried for personal hygiene or used as a fashion accessory.

Animal Cells Animal cells contain many organelles, which are subunits within the cell that perform specialized functions. The organelles may be membrane-bound (enclosed within a lipid bilayer) or non-membrane bound (free in the cytoplasm). Here is a list of animal cell components and organelles and their functions: • Cell Membrane: The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a selectively permeable lipid bilayer that encloses the contents of the cell and regulates the transport of materials into and out of it. • Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the jelly-like fluid that gives a cell is shape and contains the molecules the cell needs for its processes. • Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and enables cell movement. It is composed of three main types of protein filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. • Nucleus: The nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing DNA and regulating gene expression. It is surrounded by a double-layered nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane that has nuclear pores that allow the exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Nucleolus: Located within the nucleus, the nucleolus is the site of pre-ribosome production. • Mitochondria: Often referred to as the “powerhouse” of the cell, mitochondria are responsible for generating energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through cellular respiration. • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The ER is a network of membrane-bound tubes and sacs involved in the synthesis, folding, and transport of proteins and lipids. There are two types of ER: the rough ER, which is studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis, and the smooth ER, which is responsible for lipid synthesis and detoxification. • Ribosomes: These small structures, composed of RNA and proteins, are the sites of protein synthesis within the cell. They can be found either free-floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER. • Golgi Apparatus: The Golgi apparatus is responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids for transport to their final destinations within or outside the cell. • Lysosomes: Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris, playing a crucial role in the recycling of cellular components. • Peroxisomes: These small organelles contain enzymes that neutralize toxic substances and break down fatty acids, contributing to cellular detoxification and energy production. • Centrosome: The centrosome is an organelle found in animal cells but not plant cells. It is a small organelle near the nucleus with radiating tubules. The centrosome produces and organizes microtubules and regulates cell division so that the cell contents equally divide between daughter cells.

Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1− . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2− as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2−) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic mass−atomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2− has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1− . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2− . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2−3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2−3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1− 2− 3− 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO2−3 arsenate, AsO3−3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrO−3 chromate, CrO2−4 phosphite, PO3−3 chlorate, ClO−3 dichromate, Cr2O2−7 phosphate, PO3−4 chlorite, ClO−2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4 cyanide, CN− oxalate, C2O2−4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO−4 peroxide, O2−2 hydrogen carbonate, HCO−3 silicate, SiO2−3 hydrogen sulfate, HSO−4 sulfate, SO2−4 hydrogen sulfide, HS− sulfite, SO2−3 hydroxide, OH− hypochlorite, ClO− nitrate, NO−3 nitrite, NO−2 perchlorate, ClO−4 permanganate, MnO−4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO−3) and nitrite (NO−2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClO− , hypochlorite ClO−2 , chlorite ClO−3 , chlorate ClO−4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.

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