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Territoire Industriel
Quiz by Patrick Masse
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Quiz ultime suprême sur le territoire industrielEconomy of Southeast Asia Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important were such spices as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region. First the Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British into Malaya, and the French into Indochina. Europe’s interest and activity in the region was further enhanced by the opening of the Suez Canal, the development of telegraphic communications, the adoption of steam shipping, and the prospects for trade with China. In the case of Malaya, the gradual diffusion of British administration provided systems of law and order and of taxation and allowed for the gradual development of infrastructure, principally reliable transport systems. This environment attracted Chinese immigrants, and the growth of the tin mining industry soon followed. Later rubber plantations were established, which brought about still further immigration. Similar developments took place in Burma (Myanmar), Vietnam, and Indonesia. In Siam (Thailand) during the second half of the 19th century, a rapid expansion of Western enterprise occurred, though not by colonization. Both British and American firms began trading in the region. The impact of the Western activity was essentially to remove trade from what had been a Chinese monopoly and to emphasize the export of a single commodity, rice. Established indigenous textile and sugar-processing industries were replaced by imports, and the economy slowly became dependent on rice exports. The Philippines gradually developed a plantation farming system under Spanish and later American influence, although rice, sugar, and tobacco continued to be produced by small-scale growers and processed by Chinese enterprises until the mid-19th century. The incorporation of Southeast Asia into the world economy had a major impact on the distribution of the region’s economic development, and it created more uneven patterns of population growth and economic activity. It also brought about a stronger sense of class distinction and resulted in a larger discrepancy between the wealthy and poor. The worldwide economic depression of the 1930s severely affected the commercialized areas most dependent on the world economy. Unemployment rose, and the period produced the seeds of political change and activism that culminated in the independence of most of the region’s countries after World War II. Since the 1950s the economic development strategies of virtually all the capitalist Southeast Asian states have emphasized urban industrialization, while agricultural development generally has been viewed as subsidiary to industrial growth. These strategies have met with mixed success. Indeed, the trading pattern of the region by and large has continued to be one of producing and exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods. Only Singapore has reached an advanced level of industrialization, in the process becoming one of the world’s great centers of industry and commerce. There is great disparity in development rates within the region, especially between the member and nonmember countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Those belonging to this grouping—Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand—generally have experienced significant economic development since the mid-1960s; the exception has been the Philippines, the economy of which has grown at a much slower rate. Development has been extremely slow or nonexistent in the non-ASEAN countries of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam, and these are among the poorest nations in the world.To the Lakota, and other indigenous people on North America's Great Plains, the bison was an essential part of their culture ( expressed in the quote on the previous page). The bison provided meat for nutrition, a hide for clothing and shelter, bones for tools, and fat for soap. The bison was also central to their religious beliefs. So, when European settlers hunted the bison nearly to extinction, Lakota culture suffered. Culture is central to a society and the identity of its people, as well as its continued existence. Therefore, geographers study culture as a way to understand similarities and differences among societies across the world, and in some cases, to help preserve these societies. Analyzing Culture All of a group's learned behaviors, actions, beliefs, and objects are a part of culture. It is a visible force seen in a group's actions, possessions, and influence on the landscape. For example, in a large city you can see people working in offices, factories, and stores, and living in high-rise apartments or suburban homes. You might observe them attending movies, concerts, or sporting events. Culture is also an invisible force guiding people through shared belief systems, customs, and traditions. Culture is learned, in that it develops through experiences, and not merely transmitted through genetics. For example, many people in the United States have developed a strong sense of competitiveness in school and business, and believe that hard work is a key to success. These types of elements, visible and invisible, are cultural traits. A series of interrelated traits make up a cultural complex, such as the process of steps and acceptable behaviors related to greeting a person in different cultures. A single cultural artifact, such as an automobile, may represent many different values, beliefs, behaviors and traditions and be representative of a cultural complex. Since culture is learned there are many ways that one generation passes its culture to the next. Children and adults learn traits three ways: • imitation, as when learning a language by repeating sounds or behaviors from a person or television • informal instruction, as when a parent reminds a child to say "please" • formal instruction, as when students learn history in school 132 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION CULTURAL COMPLEX OF THE AUTOMOBILE The automobile provides much more than just transportation, as it reflects many values that are central to American culture. Origins of Culture The area in which a unique culture or a specific trait develops is a culture hearth. Classical Greece was a culture hearth for democracy more than 2,000 years ago. New York City was a culture hearth for rap music in the 1970s. Geographers study how cultures develop in hearths and diffuse-or spread-to other places. Geographers also study taboos, behaviors heavily discouraged by a culture. For example, many cultures have taboos against eating certain foods, such as pork or insects. What is considered taboo changes over time. In the United States, marriages between Protestants and Catholics were once taboo, but they are not widely opposed now. Traditional, Folk, and Indigenous Cultures With the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, modern transportation and communication connected people as never before and led to extensive cultural mixing, especially as cities have grown. The world prior to this time was very different; however, remnants of the past are still evident in our modern cultures. Traditional, folk, and indigenous cultures share some important characteristics and are often grouped together, but they do have some subtle differences. Traditional Culture Recently, the meanings of traditional, folk, and indigenous culture have begun to merge, causing geographers to debate when each should be used. Increasingly, the term traditional culture is used to encompass all three cultural designations. All three types share the function of passing down long-held beliefs, values, and practices and are generally resistant to rapid changes in their culture. Folk Culture The beliefs and practices of small, homogenous groups of people, often living in rural areas that are relatively isolated and slow to change, are known as folk cultures. Like all cultures, they demonstrate the diverse ways that people have adapted to a physical environment. For example, people around the world learned to make shelters out of available resources, whether 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 133 it was snow or mud bricks or wood. However, people used similar resources such as wood differently. In Scandinavia, people used trees to build cabins. In the American Midwest, people processed trees into boards, built a frame, and attached the boards to it. Many traits of folk culture continue today. Corn was first grown in Mexico around 10,000 years ago, and it is still grown there today. While many elements of folk culture exist side by side with modern culture, there are people whose societies have changed little, if at all, from long ago. These people practice traditional cultures, those which have not been affected by modern technology or influences. They often live in remote regions, such as some small tribes in the Amazon rainforest, and have scant knowledge of the outside world. As the lines continue blurring between cultural designations, the Amish of Pennsylvania are often referenced as both folk and traditional culture. Indigenous Culture When members of an ethnic group reside in their ancestral lands, and typically possess unique cultural traits, such as speaking their own exclusive language, they are considered an indigenous culture. Some indigenous peoples have been displaced from their native lands, but still practice their indigenous culture. Native Americans in the United States, such as the Navajo, have kept indigenous cultural practices. First Nations of Canada, such as the Inuit, have also retained their indigenous culture. Globalization and Popular Culture As a result of the Industrial Revolution, improvements in transportation and communication have shortened the time required for movement, trade, or other forms of interaction between two places. This development, known as space-time compression (see Topics 1.4 and 3.6), has accelerated culture change around the world. In 1817, a freight shipment from Cincinnati needed 52 days to reach New York City. By 1850, because of canals and railroads, it took half that long. And by 1852, it took only 7 days. Today, an airplane flight takes only a few hours, and digital information takes seconds or less. Similar change has occurred on the global scale. People travel freely across the world in a matter of hours, and communication has advanced to a point where people share information instantaneously across the globe. The increased global interaction has had a profound impact on cultures, from spreading English across the world to instant sharing of news, events and music. Globalization specifically refers to the increased integration of the world economy since the 1970s. The process of intensified interaction among peoples, governments, and companies of different countries around the globe has had profound impacts on culture. The culture of the United States is intertwined with globalization. Through the influence of its corporations, Hollywood movies, and government, the United States exerts widespread influence in other countries. But other countries also shape American culture. For example, in 2019, the National Basketball Association included players from 38 countries or territories. When cultural traits- such as clothing, music, movies, and types of 134 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP. EDITION businesses-spread quickly over a large area and are adopted by various groups, they become part of popular culture. Elements of popular culture often begin in urban areas and diffuse quickly through globalization processes such as the media and Internet. These elements can quickly be adopted worldwide, making them part of global culture. People around the world follow European soccer, Indian Bollywood movies, and Japanese animation known as anime. With people in many nations wearing similar clothes, listening to similar music, and eating similar food, popular cultural traits often promote uniformity in beliefs, values, and the cultural landscape across many places The cultural landscape, also known as the built environment (see Topic 3.2), is the modification of the environment by a group and is a visible reflection of that group's cultural beliefs and values. Traditional Culture to Popular Culture Popular culture emphasizes trying what is new rather than preserving what is traditional. Many people, especially older generations or those who follow a folk culture, openly resist the adoption of popular cultural traits. They do this by preserving traditional languages, religions, values, and foods. While older generations often resist the adoption of popular culture, they seldom are successful in keeping their traditional cultures from changing, especially among the young people of their society. One clash between popular and traditional culture is occurring in Brazil. As the population expands to the interior of the rain forest, many indigenous cultures, like the Yanamamo tribe, have more contact with outside groups. Remaining isolated by the forest is becoming increasingly difficult as many young people from the indigenous cultures become exposed to popular culture and begin to integrate into the larger Brazilian society. As the young people leave their communities, they are more likely to accept popular culture at the expense of their indigenous cultural heritage, which threatens the very existence of their folk culture. Traditional culture typically exhibits horizontal diversity, meaning each traditional culture has its own customs and language that makes it distinct from other culture groups. Yet, people people within each group are usually homogeneous, or very similar to each other. By contrast, popular culture typically exhibits vertical diversity, meaning that modern urban societies are usually heterogeneous, or exhibiting differences, within the society and usually contain numerous multiethnic neighborhoods. However, on a global scale popular cultures are relatively similar with the same type of malls, shops, fast food, and clothing. Urban global culture centers are not identical, yet, global cities often do not have as much horizontal diversity across space as folk cultures. 3.1: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE 135 COMPARING TRADITIONAL AND POPULAR CULTURE Trait Traditional Culture Popular or Global Culture Society • Rural and isolated location • Urban and connected location • Homogeneous and • Diverse and multiethnic indigenous population population • Most people speak an • Many people speak a global indigenous or ethnic local language such as English or language Arabic • Horizontal diversity • Vertical diversity Social • Emphasis on community and • Emphasis on individualism and Structure conformity making choices • Families live close to each • Dispersed families other • Weakly defined gender roles • Well-defined gender roles Diffusion • Relatively slow and limited • Relatively rapid and extensive • Primarily through relocation • Often hierarchical • Oral traditions and stories • Social media and mass media Buildings and • Materials produced locally, • Materials produced in distant Housing such as stone or grass factories, such as steel or glass • Built by community or owner • Built by a business • Similar style for community • Variety of architectural styles • Different between cultures • Similar between cities • Traditional architecture • Postmodern / contemporary architecture Food • Locally produced • Often imported • Choices limited by tradition • Wide range of choice • Prepared by the family or • Purchased in restaurants community Spatial Focus • Local and regional • National and global Artifacts, Mentifacts, and Sociofacts Whether a cultural attribute is considered traditional, folk, indigenous, or popular in nature, it is valuable to differentiate between elements of culture that can be seen and those that can not. There are artifacts that comprise the material culture, which consists of tangible things, or those that can be experienced by the senses. Art, clothing, food, music, sports, and housing types are all tangible elements of culture. Another element of the study of artifacts is understanding the techniques to use or build a specific artifact. Artifacts can be unique to a particular culture, or can be shared. For example, people of all cultures need to communicate through language, yet there are many groups that possess languages unique to their culture. The ability to read, write and understand the English language is an artifact of importance for much of popular global culture. 136 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP" EDITION Mentifacts comprise a group's nonmaterial culture and consist ofintangible concepts, or those not having a physical presence. Beliefs, values, practices, and aesthetics (pleasing in appearance) determine what a cultural group views as acceptable and desirable. Mentifacts can also be unique or shared. People of many cultures possess an belief in one or many deities, and often the deities are unique to that culture. The belief in a god is a mentifact-the religious building or symbols are artifacts. Cultural groups also possess sociofacts, which are the ways people organize their society and relate to one another. Taken altogether, people tend to see the whole of their culture as greater than the sum of its individual parts. Sociofacts are embodied through families, governments, sports teams, religious organizations, education systems, and other social constructs. As with artifacts and mentifacts, sociofacts may also be unique or similar to other societies. Families are the foundations of most societies, yet what constitutes the structure of a family may vary widely between cultural groups. For example, Western cultures tend to view the nuclear family, consisting of the parents and their children as the basic family unit. By contrast, in many Western African cultures the norm is the extended family, consisting of several generations and other family members such as cousins living under one roof.Territoire agricole du QuébecTerritoire énergétiqueExamen sur le territoire autochtoneI Suivre les ventes et les livraisons La plupart du temps, les commandes des clients vont déclencher les règlements. Réceptionner les commandes et les traiter rigoureusement est donc une activité essentielle pour la PME. 1. La réception de la commande Avant de traiter la commande, il est important qu’elle soit vérifiée pour optimiser la relation client et éviter les erreurs. Les points de contrôle sont : 2. Le traitement de la commande Les documents à générer sur le PGI sont : 3. Le suivi de la commande Le suivi permet à l’entreprise de surveiller la progression de l’ensemble des commandes. L’entreprise peut ainsi créer un tableau de suivi visuel lui permettant d’anticiper les problèmes de livraison. Voici un exemple : 4. L’organisation et le suivi des livraisons Livrer, c’est mettre à la disposition du client les produits commandés à la date prévue et au lieu convenu. L’entreprise peut décider de livrer elle-même out de faire appel à un transporteur : • La prise en charge de la livraison par le fournisseur La PME organise le planning et la tournée des livreurs en tenant compte des attentes du client, du temps de trajet et du volume à livrer. Elle utilise pour chaque étape le bon de livraison. Un exemplaire est conservé par l’entreprise et un exemplaire sera laissé au client lors de la livraison. • La prise en charge de la livraison via un transporteur Le suivi de la livraison : Le contrat général de vente permet d’anticiper les problèmes et de limiter les contestations (retards de livraison). Les frais de transport doivent donc figurer sur le bon de livraison. Trois type de frais existent : ▪ franco de port : ▪ port dû : Certains transporteurs offrent la possibilité de suivre les expéditions sur leur site Web. II Facturer, suivre les règlements et les relances clients 1. La facture A chaque étape du processus de vente, divers documents sont créés. Le dernier document du processus est la facture. Elle indique le paiement à faire au client et prouve la vente : facture de doit. Chaque facture portant une date et un numéro unique, une fois émise, il n’est donc plus possible de l’annuler ou la modifier .S’il se passe un évènement après l’édition, on devra alors émettre un avoir. Le processus peut se schématiser ainsi : 2. La présentation d’une facture La facture est établit en double exemplaire et doit être conservée pendant 10 ans. Elle résulte d’une obligation légale et se matérialise par un enregistrement comptable. Quelques règles sont à respecter : 3. Les éléments à contrôler sur la facture Il est nécessaire de vérifier les mentions obligatoires afin d’éviter les réclamations clients. Si elle est conforme, elle est envoyée au client et transmise au service comptabilité pour l’enregistrement. Les éléments à vérifier sont : 4. Les aspects fiscaux liés aux ventes : le mécanisme de TVA L’enregistrement des ventes doit se faire dans le respect des règles fiscales relatives à la TVA (taxe sur la valeur ajoutée) Il existe 4 taux principaux de TVA en France : Certaines activités et certains territoires sont exonérés de TVA. • Le taux de TVA intermédiaire de 10 % s’applique pour les activités suivantes : Restauration (pour consommation immédiate) Aide à la personne Hébergement et transport Produits agricoles non transformés et bois de chauffage Médicaments non remboursés Travaux et réparation pour les logements anciens (plus de deux ans) Musées et zoos • Le taux de TVA réduit à 5.5 % s’applique pour les activités et produits suivants : Produits alimentaires de première nécessité Fourniture de chaleur produite à partir d’énergies renouvelables Livres (y compris numériques) Billetterie de spectacle vivant Restauration pour les cantines scolaire Équipements pour personnes handicapées Travaux d’amélioration énergétique des logements de plus de 2 ans • Le taux de TVA spécifique à 2,1% s’applique pour les activités suivantes : Médicaments remboursés par la Sécurité sociale Publications de presse Billetterie de certains spectacles et cinémas Animaux vivants de boucherie et de charcuterie vendus à des non-assujettis • Les activités suivantes sont exonérées de TVA (0%) : Pêche en mer Certaines œuvres non lucratives à caractère social ou philanthropique Activités médicales et paramédicales Enseignement et formation Livraison ou récupération de déchets Le principe de la TVA pour les entreprises : Afin de bien réaliser les écritures comptables, il est important de différencier la TVA déductible de la TVA collectée : Une créance client est enregistrée en débit alors que la vente de marchandises de l’entreprise est enregistrée en crédit. 5. Les écritures comptables relatives aux ventes Les différents éléments d’une facture doivent être enregistrés dans le journal et dans les comptes de l’entreprise. Si l’entreprise dispose d’un PGI, le devis génère automatiquement la commande. La commande génère automatiquement le bon de livraison qui génère la facture. La facture génère automatiquement les écritures comptables au journal. Exemple de visualisation d’écriture comptable sur le PGI : 6. La mise en place d’un suivi efficace des règlements Le suivi des comptes clients permet de connaitre l’état des créances à tout moment. La relance remplit plusieurs objectifs : Les outils les plus utilisés dans cette démarche sont l’échéancier (il liste les créances en attente de règlement avec peu de détails) et la balance âgée (elle présente les soldes de créances de manière plus visuelle avec une ligne par client). Exemples : Echéancier Balance âgée L’entreprise peut également pointer les créances afin de faire ressortir les créances impayées (lettrage des comptes). Enfin, compte tenu des enjeux pour les entreprises d’obtenir les règlements dans des délais raisonnables, elles mettent en place un véritable processus de relance qui doit respecter les étapes suivantes : Après avoir pris connaissance du processus de relance, il devient nécessaire de créer un tableau de relance des impayés pour relancer les clients efficacement. Exemple : Tableau de relances des impayés : Enfin, il faudra relancer les clients par téléphone, mail ou courrier pour obtenir les sommes dues via des relances automatisées. Exemple de mise en demeure automatisée envoyée en recommandé : Territorio e Urbanistica