The Outer Planets of the Solar System

THE SOAR SYSTEM A solar system is a group of planets and other celestial bodies that revolve around a star. A solar nebula- a vast cloud of gas and dust, mostly hydrogen and helium. How the Solar System Form • COLLAPSE AND SPINNING DISK FORMATION - Gravity pulls material inward. The cloud flattens into a spinning disk due to conservation of angular momentum. • PROTOSTAR FORMATION- (BIRTH OF THE SUN). Material collects at the center, and begun to heat up. When it reaches to 10 million KELVIN, nuclear fusion begins. thus, SUN is born. • PLANETESIMALS AND PROTOPLANETS. Dust and gas in the disk stick together via static and gravitational forces. These form planetesimals, which grow into protoplanets collision and accretion. • PLANET FORMATION. Inner disk: too hot for gas rocky planets form Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. • PLANET FORMATION. Outer disk: gas and ice giants. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune • LEFTOVER DEBRIS. Remaining materials forms moon, asteroids, comets and dwarf planets. DIFFERENT HYPOTHESIS IN THE FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 1. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS- The Solar system formed from a rotating cloud of Gas and Dust (solar nebula). As it rotates conservation of angular momentum caused the cloud to flatten into a disk. the Sun formed at the center (DISK) while planets formed from the surrounding materials through acceleration. thus, it explains the coplanar and nearly circular orbit of the planets all planets orbits around the sun on the same flat, disk shaped plane. Proposed by Immanuel Kant in 1755 and Modified by Pierre Simon Laplace in 1756. PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS. The Solar system formed from a rotating cloud of Gas and Dust (solar nebula). As it rotates conservation of angular momentum caused the cloud to flatten into a disk. 2. Protoplanet hypothesis. Builds on the nebular model but focuses more on the role of planetesimals which then form into full planets. PROCESS: - Small solid particles stick together through collisions. As collisions takes place, it grows into kilometer-sized planetesimals. Gravitational interactions lead to the formation of planets. Lead to formation of steroids belts and varying planet sizes 3. Encounter hypothesis. States that the sun encountered a rogue star. The encounter led to the removal of hot gas from both stars due to their gravitational interaction. The hot gas then accumulated and formed the planets. The materials from the less dense rogue star formed the other planets, while that from the sun formed the inner planets. 4. TIDAL HYPOTHESIS. (also called the Tidal Theory) is an early scientific idea about how the solar system might have formed. Proposed by James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys. A massive star passed very close to the early Sun. The hot gas then accumulated and formed the planets. The materials from the less dense rogue star formed the other planets, while that from the sun formed the inner planets. Streams of hot gas were drawn out from the Sun in elongated shape. These streams eventually condensed and cooled, forming planets, moons, and other bodies in the solar system. 5. Not accepted theory. Later studies showed the streams of hot gas would disperse too quickly into space instead of condensing into planets. The theory also couldn’t explain the specific orbital patterns and compositions we see today. Modern science favors the Nebular Hypothesis, which explains solar system formation through the collapse of a rotating gas cloud. Earth as the only habitable planet 1. Right Distance from the Sun (The Goldilocks Zone). Not too hot, not too cold — just right for liquid water to exist. 2. Atmosphere with Oxygen. Earth has a mix of gases, especially oxygen, which most living things need to survive. 3. Liquid Water. Earth has oceans, rivers, and rain — water is essential for all life. 4. Magnetic Field. Earth’s magnetic field protects us from harmful solar radiation. 5. Stable Climate. The atmosphere and natural cycles keep temperatures and weather mostly stable over time. 6. Rich Resources. Earth has soil for growing food, minerals, and energy sources that support life and technology. Solar explorations 1. AUGUST 6, 2014. First space craft to orbit a comet (ROSETTA PROBE). Captures the comet photograph. -Comets have coma and tail as it approaches to the sun. 2. JULY 14, 2015. NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft made history by becoming the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto, giving us our first close-up look at the dwarf planet. First time visiting Pluto. Before this, Pluto was just a blurry dot in telescope images. Revealed a surprising world New Horizons showed mountains of ice, smooth plains, and a heart-shaped region called Tombaugh Regio. Changed what we knew. Scientists thought Pluto would be dull and frozen — instead, it turned out to be geologically active and incredibly complex. 3. SEPTEMBER 8, 2016. NASA launched OSIRIS-REx, the first U.S. mission to collect a sample from an asteroid and return it to Earth. Changed what we knew. Scientists thought Pluto would be dull and frozen — instead, it turned out to be geologically active and incredibly complex. OSIRIS-REx stands for: Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security–Regolith Explorer It was sent to study the asteroid Bennu, a near-Earth asteroid about 500 meters wide. Mission Goals: Collect a sample of surface material from Bennu Study the asteroid’s omposition, structure, and history. Mission Goals: Help scientists understand the origins of the solar system. Learn more about asteroids that could impact Earth. 4. August 12, 2018: Launch of NASA’s Parker Solar Probe, the first spacecraft to "touch" the Sun by flying through its outer atmosphere, called the corona. Mission Goal: To study the Sun up close and help scientists understand: How the solar wind (a stream of charged particles) is formed. Why the Sun’s corona is hotter than its surface. What causes solar storms that can affect Earth’s satellites and power grids. 5. November 26, 2018: NASA’s Insight Lander Touches Down on Mars. Its mission was focused on studying the interior of the Red Planet (crust, mantle, and core of the planet). Why the Sun’s corona is hotter than its surface. What causes solar storms that can affect Earth’s satellites and power grids 6. November 26, 2018: NASA’s Insight Lander Touches Down on Mars. Its mission was focused on studying the interior of the Red Planet (crust, mantle, and core of the planet) 7. JULY 30, 2020 PERSEVERANCE PROBE. Perseverance rover as part of the Mars 2020 mission aboard an Atlas V-541 rocket This marked a major step in Mars exploration. 8. DECEMBER 25, 2021-JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE. Investigate exoplanets’ atmospheres for signs of habitability. Observe the first galaxies formed after the Big Bang. Study the formation of stars and planetary systems. Look deeper into the infrared universe than ever before. RESULTS OF EXPLORATION • Evidence of Ancient Life-friendly Environment. • Sedimentary rocks formed in water-rich environments. • Signs of clay and carbonate minerals, which can preserve biosignatures (traces of past life). • Evidence of Ancient Life-friendly Environment. • Sedimentary rocks formed in water-rich environments. • Signs of clay and carbonate minerals, which can preserve biosignatures (traces of past life). • Evidence of Ancient Life-friendly Environment. • Sedimentary rocks formed in water-rich environments. • Signs of clay and carbonate minerals, which can preserve biosignatures (traces of past life).

meteor meteorite meteoroid Milky Way moon Neptune orbit physical characteristics Pluto revolve / revolution rotate / rotation Saturn solar system Sun Uranus Venus Essential Understandings (Content Elaboration): ● Planets in the solar system orbit the sun. Some of the planets have one or more orbiting moons. Earth is a planet that has a moon. The moon orbits Earth. Gravitational forces between the sun and its planets cause the planets to orbit the sun. Gravitational forces between a planet and its moon(s) cause the moon(s) to orbit the planet. If no forces were present, planets and moons would continue their motion toward outer space without changes in speed or direction. However, gravitational forces between the sun and each planet continuously change the planet’s direction so it remains in orbit. In the same way, gravitational forces between each moon and its planet continuously change the moon’s direction so it remains in orbit.

What is a Plant Cell? Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain a nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane. Plant Cell Structure Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various components known as cell organelles that perform different functions to sustain itself. These organelles include: Cell Wall It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or suberin. The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and providing form and structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of it. The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely, primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes. Cell membrane It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer of protein and fat. The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances within the cell. For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential minerals are transported across. Nucleus The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism and growth. 1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures and ribosomes. 2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that allow proteins and nucleic acids to pass through. Plastids They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch and to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules, which form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated below: Leucoplasts They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissue of plants. They are used for the storage of protein, lipid and starch. Chromoplasts They are heterogeneous, colored plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have red-, orange- and yellow-colored pigments which provide color to all ripe fruits and flowers. Central Vacuole It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of the central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain turgor pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts, enzymes and other substances. Golgi Apparatus They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are involved in distributing synthesized macromolecules to various parts of the cell. Ribosomes They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell. Mitochondria They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.” Lysosome Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles and foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles. Chloroplasts It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green colored pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose. Structure of Chloroplast Chloroplasts are found in all higher plants. It is oval or biconvex, found within the mesophyll of the plant cell. The size of the chloroplast usually varies between 4-6 µm in diameter and 1-3 µm in thickness. They are double-membrane organelle with the presence of outer, inner and intermembrane space. There are two distinct regions present inside a chloroplast known as the grana and stroma. • Grana are made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids or lamellae. The granum of the chloroplast consists of chlorophyll pigments and are the functional units of chloroplasts. • Stroma is the homogenous matrix which contains grana and is similar to the cytoplasm in cells in which all the organelles are embedded. Stroma also contains various enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. Stroma lamellae function by connecting the stacks of thylakoid sacs or grana. The chloroplast structure consists of the following parts: Membrane Envelope It comprises inner and outer lipid bilayer membranes. The inner membrane separates the stroma from the intermembrane space. Intermembrane Space The space between inner and outer membranes. Thylakoid System (Lamellae) The system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacs called thylakoids or lamellae. The green colored pigments called chlorophyll are found in the thylakoid membranes. It is the sight for the process of light-dependent reactions of the photosynthesis process. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana and each granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids. Stroma It is a colorless, alkaline, aqueous, protein-rich fluid present within the inner membrane of the chloroplast present surrounding the grana. Grana Stack of lamellae in plastids is known as grana. These are the sites of conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Chlorophyll It is a green photosynthetic pigment that helps in the process of photosynthesis. Functions of Chloroplast Following are the important chloroplast functions: • The most important function of the chloroplast is to synthesize food by the process of photosynthesis. • Absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy. • Chloroplast has a structure called chlorophyll which functions by trapping the solar energy and is used for the synthesis of food in all green plants. • Produces NADPH and molecular oxygen (O 2 ) by photolysis of water. • Produces ATP – Adenosine triphosphate by the process of photosynthesis. • The carbon dioxide (CO2) obtained from the air is used to generate carbon and sugar during the Calvin Cycle or dark reaction of photosynthesis. Mitochondria “Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell.” What are Mitochondria? Popularly known as the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are a double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. They are found inside the cytoplasm and essentially function as the cell’s “digestive system.” They play a major role in breaking down nutrients and generating energy-rich molecules for the cell. Many of the biochemical reactions involved in cellular respiration take place within the mitochondria. The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived from the Greek words “mitos” and “chondrion” which means “thread” and “granules-like”, respectively. It was first described by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890. Structure of Mitochondria • The mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell. • Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter. • The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like material called the matrix. • The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and phospholipid layers separated by the intermembrane space. • The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large number of special proteins known as porins. Cristae The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather complex in structure. It has many folds that form a layered structure called cristae, and this helps in increasing the surface area inside the organelle. The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aid in the production of ATP molecules. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and ATP molecules. A number of chemical reactions take place within the inner membrane of mitochondria. Mitochondrial Matrix The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis of ATP molecules. Functions of Mitochondria The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process: 1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell 2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication 3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells 4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death 5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone and estrogen 6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments of the cell 7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signaling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and in cell growth. Disorders Associated with Mitochondria Any irregularity in the way mitochondria function can directly affect human health, but often, it is difficult to identify because symptoms differ from person to person. Disorders of the mitochondria can be quite severe; in some cases, they can even cause an organ to fail.

It is a basic unit of life in the smallest structure capable of basic life processes such as taking and nutrients expelling waste and reproducing is sometimes called the building block of life. a. Organ c. Cell b. DNA d. Nucleus 2. It surrounds the cell that separates the material outside the cell from the material inside the cell that maintains the integrity of cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. a. Cell Membrane c. Vacuoles b. Cell Wall d. Endoplasmic Reticulum 3. He was a Greek Philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexader the Great, also considered as the father of biology. a. Theophrastus c. Aristotle b. Matthias Schleiden d. Theodore Schwann 4. It is the functional role of a species in a community that is its occupation or how it earns its living. a. Ecosystem c. Niche b. Work d. Occupation 5. Indicates the total amount of energy present in each trophic level that shows the loss of energy from one trophic level to the next. a. Energy pyramid c. Food Pyramid b. Taxonomy d. Biomass 6. German physiologist who contributes that animal is made up of lot of cells the discovery of the organic nature of yeast and invention of the term metabolism. a. Rudolf Virchow c. Aristotle b. Matthias Schleiden d. Theodore Schwann 7. The first person who use the term cells for the tiny structures found in organisms and observe a piece of cork by the use of microscope which he himself had made. a. Rudolf Virchow c. Robert Hooke b. Matthias Schleiden d. Theodore Schwann 8. It refers to the theory about the origin of life which life originated spontaneously from non-living things. a. Marine Theory c. Divine Creation Theory b. Evolutionary Theory d. Abiogenesis Theory 9. Life originated from outer planets in a form of a resistance poor propelled by radiation pressure reach earth and started the first form of life. a. Marine Theory c. Divine Creation Theory b. Cosmozoic Theory d. Abiogenesis Theory 10. He conducted an experiment with nutrient both and curved neck flask to finally disprove spontaneous generation. a. Louis Pasteur c. Lazzaro Spallanzani b. Francesco Redi d. John Needham

Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering. Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock and mineral away. No rock on Earth is hard enough to resist the forces of weathering and erosion. Together, these processes carved landmarks such as the Grand Canyon, in the U.S. state of Arizona. This massive canyon is 446 kilometers (277 miles) long, as much as 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide, and 1,600 meters (1 mile) deep. Weathering and erosion constantly change the rocky landscape of Earth. Weathering wears away exposed surfaces over time. The length of exposure often contributes to how vulnerable a rock is to weathering. Rocks, such as lavas, that are quickly buried beneath other rocks are less vulnerable to weathering and erosion than rocks that are exposed to agents such as wind and water, As it smoothes rough, sharp rock surfaces, weathering is often the first step in the production of soils. Tiny bits of weathered minerals mix with plants, animal remains, fungi, bacteria, and other organisms. A single type of weathered rock often produces infertile soil, while weathered materials from a collection of rocks is richer in mineral diversity and contributes to more fertile soil. Soils types associated with a mixture of weathered rock include glacial till, loess, and alluvial sediments. Weathering is often divided into the processes of mechanical weathering and chemical weathering. Biological weathering, in whichliving or once-living organisms contribute to weathering, can be a part of both processes. Mechanical Weathering Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering and disaggregation, causes rocks to crumble. Water, in either liquid or solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical weathering. For instance, liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in rock. If temperatures drop low enough, the water will freeze. When water freezes, it expands. The ice then works as a wedge. It slowly widens the cracks and splits the rock. When ice melts, liquid water performs the act of erosion by carrying away the tiny rock fragments lost in the split. This specific process (the freeze-thaw cycle) is called frost weathering or cryofracturing. Figure 4.3 Frost Wedging Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical weathering in a process called thermal stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat) and contract (with cold). As this happens over and over again. the structure of the rock weakens. Over time, it crumbles. Rocky desert landscapes are particularly vulnerable to thermal stress. The outer layer of desert rocks undergo repeated stress as the temperature changes from day Eventually, Lo outer night. layersflake off in thin sheets, a process called exfoliation. Exfoliation contributes to the formation of bornhardts, one of the most dramatic features in landscapes formed by weathering and erosion. Bornhardts are tall, domed, isolated rocks often found areas. in tropical Sugarloaf Mountain, an iconic landmark in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is bornhardt. a Salt also works to weather rock in a process called haloclasty. Saltwater sometimes gets into the cracks and pores of rock. If the saltwater evaporates, salt crystals are left behind. As the crystals grow, they put pressure on the rock, slowly breaking it apart. Plants and animals can be agents of mechanical weathering. The seed of a tree may sprout in soil that has collected in a cracked rock. As the roots grow, they widen the cracks, eventually breaking the rock into pieces. Over time, trees can break apart even large rocks. Even small plants, such as mosses, can enlarge tiny cracks as they grow. Animals that tunnel underground, such as moles and prairie dogs, also work to break apart rock and soil. Other animals dig and trample rock aboveground, causing rock to slowly crumble. Chemical Weathering Chemical weathering changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil.For instance, carbon dioxide from the air or soil sometimes combines with water in a process called carbonation. This produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid, that can dissolve rock. Carbonic acid is especially effective at dissolving limestone. When carbonic acid seeps through limestone underground, it can open up huge cracks or hollow out vast networks of caves. Carlsbad Caverns National Park, in the U.S. state of New Mexico, includes more than 119 limestone caves created by weathering and erosion. The largest is called the Big Room.. With an area of about 33,210 square meters (357,469 square feet), the Big Room is the size of six football fields. Another type of chemical weathering works on rocks that contain iron. These rocks turn to rust in a process called oxidation. Rust is a compound created by the interaction of oxygen and iron in the presence of water. As rust expands, it weakens rock and helps break it apart. Another familiar form of chemical weathering is hydrolysis. In the process of hydrolysis, a new solution (a mixture of two or more substances) is formed as chemicals in rock interact with water. In many rocks, for example, sodium minerals interact with water to form a saltwater solution. Hydration and hydrolysis contribute to flared slopes, another dramatic example of a landscape formed by weathering and erosion. Flared slopes are sometimes nicknamed "wave rocks." Their c-shape is largely concave rock formations a result of subsurface weathering, in which hydration and hydrolysis wear away rocks beneath the landscape's surfaceWeathering and People Weathering is a natural process, but human activities can speed it up. For example, certain kinds of air pollution increase the rate of weathering Burning coal, natural and petroleum releases chemicals such as nitrogen oxide and gas, sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. When these chemicals combine with sunlight and moisture, they change into acids. They then fall back to Earth as acid rain. Acid rain rapidly weathers limestone, marble, and other kinds of stone. The effects of acid rain can often be seen on gravestones, making names and other inscriptions impossible to read. Acid rain has also damaged many historic buildings and monuments. For example, at 71 meters (233 feet) tall, the Leshan Giant Buddha at Mount Emei, China is the world's largest statue of the Buddha. It was carved 1,300 years ago and sat unharmed for centuries. An innovative drainage system mitigates the natural process of erosion But in recent years, acid rain has turned the statue's nose black and made some of its hair crumble and fall.

Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1− . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2− as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2−) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic mass−atomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2− has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1− . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2− . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2−3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2−3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1− 2− 3− 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO2−3 arsenate, AsO3−3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrO−3 chromate, CrO2−4 phosphite, PO3−3 chlorate, ClO−3 dichromate, Cr2O2−7 phosphate, PO3−4 chlorite, ClO−2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4 cyanide, CN− oxalate, C2O2−4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO−4 peroxide, O2−2 hydrogen carbonate, HCO−3 silicate, SiO2−3 hydrogen sulfate, HSO−4 sulfate, SO2−4 hydrogen sulfide, HS− sulfite, SO2−3 hydroxide, OH− hypochlorite, ClO− nitrate, NO−3 nitrite, NO−2 perchlorate, ClO−4 permanganate, MnO−4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO−3) and nitrite (NO−2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClO− , hypochlorite ClO−2 , chlorite ClO−3 , chlorate ClO−4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.

Lipids are large, nonpolar organic molecules. They do not dissolve in water. Lipids include triglycerides (trie-GLIS-uhr-IEDZ), phospho- lipids, steroids, waxes, and pigments. Lipid molecules have a higher ratio of carbon and hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms than carbohydrates have. Because lipid molecules have larger numbers of carbon-hydrogen bonds per gram than other organic com- pounds do, they store more energy per gram. Fatty Acids Fatty acids are unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids. Figure 3-10 shows that a fatty acid contains a long carbon chain (from 12 to 28 carbons) with a carboxyl group, —COOH, attached at one end. The two ends of the fatty-acid molecule have different properties. The carboxyl end is polar and is thus hydrophilic or attracted to water molecules. In contrast, the hydro- carbon end of the fatty-acid molecule is nonpolar. This end tends not to interact with water molecules and is said to be hydrophobic (HIE-droh-FOH-bik), or “water fearing.” In saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic acid, which is shown in Figure 3-10, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four atoms. The carbon atoms are in effect full, or saturated. In contrast, linoleic acid, also shown in Figure 3-10, has carbon atoms that are not bonded to the maximum number of atoms to which they can bond. Instead, they have formed double bonds within the carbon chain. This type of fatty acid is said to be unsaturated. Triglycerides Three classes of lipids important to living things contain fatty acids: triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, and waxes. A triglyceride is composed of three molecules of fatty acid joined to one molecule of the alcohol glycerol. Saturated triglycerides are composed of saturated fatty acids. They typically have high melting points and tend to be hard at room temperature. Common dietary saturated triglycerides include butter and fats in red meat. In contrast, unsaturated triglycerides are composed of unsaturated fatty acids and are usually soft or liquid at room temperature. Unsaturated triglycerides are found primarily in plant seeds where they serve as an energy and carbon source for germinating plants. Phospholipids Phospholipids have two, rather than three, fatty acids attached to a molecule of glycerol. They have a phosphate group attached to the third carbon of the glycerol. As shown in Figure 3-11, the cell membrane is made of two layers of phospholipids, called the lipid bilayer. The inability of lipids to dissolve in water allows the mem- brane to form a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell. Hydrophilic “head” Phospholipids Hydrophobic “tail” Phospholipids Water Water The lipid bilayer of a cell membrane is a double row of phospholipids.The “tails” face each other.The “head” of a phospholipid, which contains a phosphate group, is polar and hydrophilic.The two tails are two fatty acids and are nonpolar and hydrophobic. FIGURE 3-11 H C H C O OH H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H C H H H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H C O OH H C H H C H H C H C H C H C H H C H H C H C H H C H H C H C H H H H C H Fatty acids have a polar carboxyl head, highlighted in purple, and a nonpolar hydrocarbon tail, highlighted in green. FIGURE 3-10 Palmitic acid Linoleic acid mb06se_bchs02.qxd 5/18/07 10:49 AM Page 59 60 CHAPTER 3 1. Compare the structure of monosaccharides, dis- accharides, and polysaccharides. 2. How are proteins constructed from amino acids? 3. How do amino acids differ from one another? 4. Describe a model of enzyme action. 5. Why do phospholipids orient in a bilayer when in a watery environment, such as a cell? 6. Describe how the three major types of lipids differ in structure from one another. 7. What are the functions of the two types of nucleic acids? CRITICAL THINKING 8. Applying Information Before a long race, run- ners often “carbo load.” This means that they eat substantial quantities of carbohydrates. How might this help their performance? 9. Recognizing Relationships High temperatures can weaken bonds within a protein molecule. How might this explain the effects of using a hot curling iron or rollers in one’s hair? 10. Applying Information You want to eat more unsaturated than saturated fats. Name examples of foods you would eat more of and less of. SECTION 2 REVIEW Waxes A wax is a type of structural lipid consisting of a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain. Waxes are waterproof, and in plants, form a protective coating on the outer surfaces. Waxes also form protective layers in animals. For example, earwax helps pre- vent microorganisms from entering the ear canal. Steroids Unlike most other lipids, which are composed of fatty acids, steroid molecules are composed of four fused carbon rings with various functional groups attached to them. Many animal hor- mones, such as the male hormone testosterone, are steroid com- pounds. One of the most familiar steroids in humans is cholesterol. Cholesterol is needed by the body for nerve and other cells to func- tion normally. It is also a component of the cell membrane. NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleic acids are very large and complex organic molecules that store and transfer important information in the cell. There are two major types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, contains information that deter- mines the characteristics of an organism and directs its cell activi- ties. Ribonucleic (RIE-boh-noo-KLEE-ik) acid, or RNA, stores and transfers information from DNA that is essential for the manufactur- ing of proteins. Some RNA molecules can also act as enzymes. Both DNA and RNA are polymers, composed of thousands of linked monomers called nucleotides (NOO-klee-uh-TIEDS). As shown in Figure 3- 12, each nucleotide is made of three main components: a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar, and a ring-shaped nitrogenous base.

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