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Extradition (International law), Political Offence Exception, The Political Offense Exception (POE) serves as a critical safeguard in international extradition law, allowing a requested state to refuse the surrender of a fugitive if their alleged crime is of a "political character." These offenses are categorized into two types: **pure political offenses**, such as treason or espionage, which target the state's political organization without harming individuals; and **relative political offenses**, which are common crimes like robbery committed with a political motive. To distinguish between these, courts apply various judicial tests. For instance, the **Political Incidence Test** (established in *In re Castioni*) focuses on whether the act was incidental to a political disturbance, while the **Swiss Proportionality Test** weighs the political end against the criminal means used, denying the exception if the harm caused is disproportionate. In the context of **state succession**, the application of extradition treaties depends largely on the underlying legal theory adopted by the new sovereign. Under **Universal Succession**, the new state inherits all prior treaties and obligations, ensuring legal continuity. Conversely, the **Clean Slate (Tabula Rasa) Theory**, often seen in decolonization, suggests that new states are not bound by the predecessor’s treaties, potentially creating "safe havens" for fugitives until new agreements are reached. Practical examples include the **Dissolution of the USSR**, where Russia acted as the "continuator" state inheriting treaties, and the **Partition of India and Pakistan**, where a devolution agreement ensured that colonial-era treaties remained in effect. Despite its protective intent, the POE faces **modern erosion** to ensure that heinous acts do not go unpunished. Specific limitations, such as the **Attentat Clause**, explicitly exclude the assassination of a head of state from being considered a political offense. Similarly, modern treaties and conventions (like the *Meunier* ruling) exclude **terrorism**, hijacking, and crimes against humanity from the exception, viewing these acts as attacks on the general social order rather than legitimate political dissent. This evolution reflects a growing international consensus that the gravity of certain crimes—such as those seen in the **Rainbow Warrior case study**—far outweighs any claimed political motivation, shifting the legal focus toward human rights and the prevention of torture.

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Statistics Branch of science that deals with the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. Purpose of statistics is to make an inference about a population by examining a sample. Collection of Data Refers to the process of gathering information. Primary source: questionnaires, interviews. Secondary source: journals, books. Presentation of Data Organization and arrangement of data in tabular form (tables), graphical representation (graphs). Analysis of Data Application and interpretation using statistical tools to derive meaning. Inspection of Data Descriptive Statistics: Involves describing the basic features of the data in a study. Provides simple summaries about the sample and measures. Inferential Statistics: Makes judgments and reaches conclusions about populations based on samples. Population vs Sample Population: entirety Sample: only part of population Fundamental or Descriptive Statistics: Measures Of Central Tendency: Mean (average) Median (middle value) Mode (most frequent) Measures Of Dispersion/Variability: Range (difference between highest & lowest) Variance & standard deviation Measures Of Position: Quartiles & percentiles Measures Of Relationship Between Variables: Correlation coefficient Types Of Data: Primary Data – original source. Secondary Data – derived from primary. Major Characteristics Of Data Sources: Primary Source – direct from respondent; more accurate; costly; time-consuming. Secondary Source – characteristic not

Here are 40 keywords related to State Succession Theories, categorized for clarity for International Relations students: ### **The Core Theories** 1. Universal Succession 2. Clean Slate Doctrine (Tabula Rasa) 3. Popular Continuity Theory 4. Organic Substitution Theory 5. Self-Abnegation Theory 6. Negative Theory 7. Communist Theory (of Succession) ### **Key Actors and Status** 8. Predecessor State 9. Successor State 10. Continuator State (Continuity) 11. Newly Independent State (NIS) 12. International Legal Personality 13. Sovereignty ### **Types of Succession Events** 14. Decolonization 15. Dissolution (Dismemberment) 16. Secession (Separation) 17. Unification (Merger) 18. Cession (Territory Transfer) 19. Moving Treaty Frontiers (Principle) ### **What is Inherited (Subject Matter)** 20. Treaty Succession 21. Localized Treaties (Dispositive Treaties) 22. Political Treaties 23. State Property (Assets) 24. State Debts (Public Liabilities) 25. Odious Debt 26. State Archives 27. Acquired Rights (*Jura Quaesita*) 28. Nationality (Citizenship Status) 29. Membership in International Organizations (e.g., UN Seat) ### **Legal Frameworks and Principles** 30. Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties (1978) 31. Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of State Property, Archives and Debts (1983) 32. Customary International Law 33. International Law Commission (ILC) 34. Equity (Equitable Proportion) 35. Unjust Enrichment 36. *Pacta Sunt Servanda* (Sanctity of Treaties) ### **Specific Issues & Historical Context** 37. Devolution Agreements 38. Badinter Commission (Yugoslavia) 39. Extradition Treaties (in succession) 40. Political Offense Exception (in revolutionary succession)

Can you make a multiple choice of test questions regarding this information given which is Curriculum from Different Points of View There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the numerous definitions indicate dynamism that connotes diverse interpretations of what curriculum is all about. The definitions are influenced by models of thought, pedagogies, political as well as cultural experiences. Let us study some of these definitions. 1. Traditional Points of View of Curriculum In early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepaid by the teachers for the student’s to learn”. It was synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus” Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where the rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education. On the other, Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language. The definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole source of curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we call subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, language and many more. To Phoenix, curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines. Academic discipline became the view of what curriculum is after the cold war and the race to space. Joseph Schwab, a leading curriculum theorist coined the term discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development. Curriculum should consist only of knowledge which comes from disciplines which is the sole source. Thus curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological and social foundations); domains of knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken as scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical, philosophical and social issues and academics. Most of the traditional ideas view curriculum as written documents or a plan of action in accomplishing goals. 2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and a list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application. Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers”. This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores when they defined “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting”. Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the “experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students”. Points of View on Curriculum Development From the various definitions and concepts presented, it is clear that curriculum is a dynamic process. Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better means any alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum evolves. Let us look at the two models of curriculum development and concepts of Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is also popularly known as Tyler’s Rationale. He posited four fundamental questions or principles in examining any curriculum in schools. These four fundamental principles are as follows: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not? In summary, Tyler’s Model show that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be made: (1) Purpose of the school, (2) Educational experiences related to the purposes, (3) Organization of the experiences, and (4) Evaluation of the experiences. On the other hand, Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model. She believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the grassroots approach. She presented seven major steps to her model where teachers could have a major input. These steps are as follows: 1. Diagnosis of learner’s needs and expectations of the larger society. 2. Formulation of learning objectives. 3. Selection of learning content. 4. Organization of learning content. 5. Selection of learning experiences. 6. Organization of learning activities. 7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it. Thus as you look into curriculum models, the three interacting processes in curriculum development are planning, implementing and evaluating. Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools From the various concepts given, Allan Glatthorn(2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools. These are (1) Recommended curriculum- proposed by scholars and professional organizations. (2) Written Curriculum- appears in school, district, division or country documents. (3) Taught Curriculum- what teacher’s implement or deliver in the classrooms and schools. (4) Supported Curriculum- resources-textbooks, computers, audio- visual materials which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum. (5) Assessed Curriculum- that which is tested and evaluated. (6) Learned Curriculum- which the students actually learn and what is measured and (7) Hidden Curriculum- the unintended curriculum. 1. Recommended Curriculum- Most of the school curricula are recommended. The curriculum may come from a national agency like the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) or any professional organization who has stake in education. For example the Philippine Association for Teacher Education (PAFTE) or the Biology Teacher Association (BIOTA) may recommend a curriculum to be implemented in the elementary or secondary education. 2. Written Curriculum- This includes documents, course of study or syllabi handed down to the schools, districts, division, departments or colleges for implementation. Most of the written curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. These were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools or population. Example of this is the Basic Education Curriculum (BEC). Another example is the written lesson plan of each classroom teacher made up of objectives and planned activities of the teacher. 3. Taught Curriculum- The different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by the learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers. 4. Supported Curriculum- In order to have a successful teaching, other than the teacher, there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written curriculum. These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos and other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong learning. 5. Assessed Curriculum- This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. This refers to the assessed curriculum. Assessment tools like pencil-and-paper tests, authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized. 6. Learned Curriculum- This refers the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior which can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor. 7. Hidden Curriculum- This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but may modify behavior or influenced learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden curricula that transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors made up the hidden curriculum.

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