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Topic 5 Part 2, Roles and Powers of the President
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Owls, such as the young snowy owls on the previous page, have for centuries been symbols of both wisdom and mystery. To many cultures their piercing eyes have conveyed a look of intelligence. Their silent flight through darkened landscapes in search of prey has projected an air of power or wonder. For this chapter and this book, owls are an engaging example of a living organism from the world of biology—the study of life. BIOLOGY AND YOU Living in a small town, in the country, or at the edge of the suburbs, one may be lucky enough to hear an owl's hooting. This experience can lead to questions about where the bird lives, what it hunts, and how it finds its prey on dark, moonless nights. Biology, or the study of life, offers an organized and scientific framework for posing and answering such questions about the natural world. Biologists study questions about how living things work, how they interact with the environment, and how they change over time. Biologists study many different kinds of living things ranging from tiny organisms, such as bacteria, to very large organisms, such as elephants. Each day, biologists investigate subjects that affect you and the way you live. For example, biologists determine which foods are healthy. As shown in Figure 1-1, everyone is affected by this impor- tant topic. Biologists also study how much a person should exer- cise and how one can avoid getting sick. Biologists also study what CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE The world is filled with familiar objects, such as tables, rocks, plants, pets, and automobiles. Which of these objects are living or were once living? What are the criteria for assigning something to the living world or the nonliving world? Biologists have established that living things share seven characteristics of life. These characteristics are organization and the presence of one or more cells, response to a stimulus (plural, stimuli), homeostasis, metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and change through time. Organization and Cells Organization is the high degree of order within an organism’s internal and external parts and in its interactions with the living world. For example, compare an owl to a rock. The rock has a spe- cific shape, but that shape is usually irregular. Furthermore, differ- ent rocks, even rocks of the same type, are likely to have different shapes and sizes. In contrast, the owl is an amazingly organized individual, as shown in Figure 1-2. Owls of the same species have the same body parts arranged in nearly the same way and interact with the environment in the same way. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. ORGANISM (Barn Owl) ORGAN (Owl’s Ear) TISSUE (Nervous Tissue Within the Ear) CELL (Nerve Cell) your air, land, and fAll living organisms, whether made up of one cell or many cells, have some degree of organization. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all life’s processes. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are made up of one cell and are called unicellular (YOON-uh-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Other organisms, such as humans or trees, are made up of multiple cells and are called multicellular (MUHL-ti-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Complex multicellular organisms have the level of orga- nization shown in Figure 1-2. In the highest level, the organism is made up of organ systems, or groups of specialized parts that carry out a certain function in the organism. For example, an owl’s ner- vous system is made up of a brain, sense organs, nerve cells, and other parts that sense and respond to the owl’s surroundings. Organ systems are made up of organs. Organs are structures that carry out specialized jobs within an organ system. An owl’s ear is an organ that allows the owl to hear. All organs are made up of tissues. Tissues are groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function. For example, nervous tissue in the ear allows the ear to detect sound. Tissues are made up of cells. A cell must be covered by a membrane, contain all genetic information necessary for replication, and be able to carry out all cell functions. Within each cell are organelles. Organelles are tiny structures that carry out functions necessary for the cell to stay alive. Organelles contain biological molecules, the chemical compounds that provide physical structure and that bring about movement, energy use, and other cellular functions. All biological molecules are made up of atoms. Atoms are the simplest particle of an ele- ment that retains all the properties of a certain element. Response to Stimuli Another characteristic of life is that an organism can respond to a stimulus—a physical or chemical change in the internal or external environment. For example, an owl dilates its pupils to keep the level of light entering the eye constant. Organisms must be able to respond and react to changes in their environment to stay alive. ORGANELLE (Mitochondrion) BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE (Phospholipid) ATOM (Oxygen) cell from the Latin, cella meaning “small room,” or “hut” Word Roots and Origins www.scilinks.org Topic: Characteristics of Life Keyword: HM60257 mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 7 8 CHAPTER 1 Homeostasis All living things, from single cells to entire organisms, have mecha- nisms that allow them to maintain stable internal conditions. Without these mechanisms, organisms can die. For example, a cell’s water content is closely controlled by the taking in or releas- ing of water. A cell that takes in too much water will rupture and die. A cell that doesn’t get enough water will also shrivel and die. Homeostasis (HOH-mee-OH-STAY-sis) is the maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions even though environmental conditions are constantly changing. Organisms have regulatory systems that maintain internal conditions, such as temperature, water content, and uptake of nutrients by the cell. In fact, multi- cellular organisms usually have more than one way of maintain- ing important aspects of their internal environment. For example, an owl’s temperature is maintained at about 40°C (104°F). To keep a constant temperature, an owl’s cells burn fuel to produce body heat. In addition, an owl’s feathers can fluff up in cold weather. In this way, they trap an insulating layer of air next to the bird’s body to maintain its body temperature. Metabolism Living organisms use energy to power all the life processes, such as repair, movement, and growth. This energy use depends on metabolism (muh-TAB-uh-LIZ-uhm). Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take in and transform energy and materials from the environment. For example, plants, algae, and some bacteria use the sun’s energy to generate sugar molecules during a process called photosynthesis. Some organisms depend on obtaining food energy from other organisms. For instance, an owl’s metabolism allows the owl to extract and modify the chemi- cals trapped in its nightly prey and use them as energy to fuel activities and growth. Growth and Development All living things grow and increase in size. Some nonliving things, such as crystals or icicles, grow by accumulating more of the same material of which they are made. In contrast, the growth of living things results from the division and enlargement of cells. Cell division is the formation of two new cells from an existing cell, as shown in Figure 1-3. In unicellular organisms, the primary change that occurs following cell division is cell enlargement. In multi- cellular life, however, organisms mature through cell division, cell enlargement, and development. Development is the process by which an organism becomes a mature adult. Development involves cell division and cell differen- tiation, or specialization. As a result of development, an adult organism is composed of many cells specialized for different func- tions, such as carrying oxygen in the blood or hearing. In fact, the human body is composed of trillions of specialized cells, all of which originated from a single cell, the fertilized egg. This unicellular organism, Escherichia coli, inhabits the human intestines. E. coli reproduces by means of cell division, during which the original cell splits into two identical offspring cells. FIGURE 1-3 Observing Homeostasis Materials 500 mL beakers (3), wax pen, tap water, thermometer, ice, hot water, goldfish, small dip net, watch or clock with a second hand Procedure 1. Use a wax pen to label three 500 mL beakers as follows: 27°C (80°F), 20°C (68°F), 10°C (50°F). Put 250 mL of tap water in each beaker. Use hot water or ice to adjust the tem- perature of the water in each beaker to match the temperature on the label. 2. Put the goldfish in the beaker of 27°C water. Record the number of times the gills move in 1 minute. 3. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 20°C water. Repeat observations. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 10°C. Repeat observations. Analysis What happens to the rate at which gills move when the temp- erature changes? Why? How do gills help fish maintain homeostasis? Quick Lab mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 8 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 9 Reproduction All organisms produce new organisms like themselves in a process called reproduction. Reproduction, unlike other characteristics, is not essential to the survival of an individual organism. However, because no organism lives forever, reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species. Glass frogs, as shown in Figure 1-4, lay many eggs in their lifetime. However, only a few of the frogs’ off- spring reach adulthood and successfully reproduce. During reproduction, organisms transmit hereditary informa- tion to their offspring. Hereditary information is encoded in a large molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. A short segment of DNA that contains the instructions for a single trait of an organism is called a gene. DNA is like a large library. It contains all the books—genes—that the cell will ever need for making all the struc- tures and chemicals necessary for life. Hereditary information is transferred to offspring during two kinds of reproduction. In sexual reproduction, hereditary information recombines from two organisms of the same species. The resulting offspring are similar but not identical to their parents. For example, a male frog’s sperm can fertilize a female’s egg and form a single fer- tilized egg cell. The fertilized egg then develops into a new frog. In asexual reproduction, hereditary information from different organisms is not combined; thus the original organism and the new organism are genetically the same. A bacterium, for example, reproduces asexually when it splits into two identical cells. Change Through Time Although individual organisms experience many changes during their lifetime, their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of living organisms evolve or change through time. The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. This factor is also impor- tant in explaining the diversity of life-forms we see on Earth today. 1. How does biology affect a person’s daily life? 2. How does biology affect society? 3. Name the characteristics shared by living things. 4. Summarize the hierarchy of organization found in complex multicellular organisms. 5. What are the different functions of homeostasis and metabolism in living organisms? 6. How does the growth among living and nonliv- ing things differ? 7. Why is reproduction an important characteristic of life? CRITICAL THINKING 8. Applying Information Crystals of salt grow and are highly organized. Why don’t biologists con- sider them to be alive? 9. Analyzing Models When a scientist designs a space probe to detect life on a distant planet, what kinds of things should it measure? 10. Making Comparisons Both cells and organisms share the characteristics of life. How are cells and organismsood supply will be like in the near future.EVOLUTION OF LIFE Individual organisms change during their lifetime, but their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of liv- ing organisms do change through time, or evolve. Evolution, or descent with modification, is the process in which the inherited characteristics within populations change over generations, such that genetically distinct populations and new species can develop. Evolution as a theme in biology helps us understand how the various branches of the “tree of life” came into existence and have changed over time. It also explains how organisms alive today are related to those that lived in the past. Finally, it helps us understand the mechanisms that underlie the way organisms look and behave. Natural Selection The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. According to the theory of evolution by natural selection, organisms that have certain favorable traits are better able to survive and reproduce success- fully than organisms that lack these traits. One product of natural selection is the adaptation of organisms to their environment. Adaptations are traits that improve an indi- vidual’s ability to survive and reproduce. For example, rabbits with white fur and short ears in a snowy place, such as the one in Figure 1-7a, may avoid predators and frostbitten ears more often than those with dark fur and long ears. Thus, the next generation of rabbits will have a greater percentage of animals carrying the genes for white fur and short ears. In contrast, the brown, long- eared rabbit, as shown in Figure 1-7b, would survive and reproduce more successfully in a hot desert environment. The survival and reproductive success of organisms with favor- able traits cause a change in populations of organisms over gener- ations. This descent with modification is an important factor in explaining the diversity of organisms we see on Earth today. 1. Name three unifying themes found in biology. 2. How is the unity and diversity in the living world represented? 3. Identify the three domains and the kingdoms found in each domain. 4. How are organisms interdependent? 5. Describe why evolution is important in explain- ing the diversity of life. 6. Distinguish between evolution and natural selection. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Applying Information Assign the various top- pings you put on pizza to the appropriate domains and kingdoms of life. 8. Analyzing Graphics According to the “tree” in Figure 1-5, which of these pairs are more closely related: Archaea:Bacteria or Archaea:Eukarya? 9. Making Hypotheses Fossil evidence shows that bats descended from shrewlike organisms that could not fly. Write a hypothesis for how natural selection might have led to flying bats. SECTION 2 REVIEW (a) This short-eared arctic hare, Lepus arcticus, is hidden from predators and protected from frostbite in a snowy environment. (b) The mottled brown coats of desert rabbits blend in with the dirt and dry grasses, and their long ears help them radiate excess heat and thus avoid overheating. FIGURE 1-7 (a) (b) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 13 TH E STUDY OF BIOLOGY Curiosity leads us to ask questions about life. Science provides a way of answering such questions about the natural world. Science is a systematic method that involves forming and testing hypotheses. More importantly, science relies on evidence, not beliefs, for drawing conclusions. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Science is characterized by an organized approach, called the scientific method, to learn how the natural world works. The methods of science are based on two important principles. The first principle is that events in the natural world have natural causes. For example, the ancient Greeks believed that lightning and thunder occurred because a supernatural god Zeus hurled thunderbolts from the heavens. By contrast, a scientist considers lightning and thunder to result from electric charges in the atmos- phere. When trying to solve a puzzle from nature, all scientists, such as the one in Figure 1-8, accept that there is a natural cause to solve that puzzle. A second principle of science is uniformity. Uniformity is the idea that the fundamental laws of nature operate the same way at all places and at all times. For example, scientists assume that the law of gravity works the same way on Mars as it does on Earth. Steps of the Scientific Method Although there is no single method for doing science, scientific studies involve a series of common steps. 1. The process of science begins with an observation. An observation is the act of perceiving a natural occurrence that causes someone to pose a question. 2. One tries to answer the question by forming hypotheses (singular, hypothesis). A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the way a particular aspect of the natural world functions. 3. A prediction is a statement that forecasts what would happen in a test situation if the hypothesis were true. A prediction is recorded for each hypothesis. 4. An experiment is used to test a hypothesis and its predictions. 5. Once the experiment has been concluded, the data are analyzed and used to draw conclusions. 6. After the data have been analyzed, the data and conclusions are communicated to scientific peers and to the public. This way oth- ers can verify, reject, or modify the researcher’s conclusions. SECTION 3 OBJECTIVES ● Outline the main steps in the scientific method. ● Summarize how observations are used to form hypotheses. ● List the elements of a controlled experiment. ● Describe how scientists use data to draw conclusions. ● Compare a scientific hypothesis and a scientific theory. ● State how communication in science helps prevent dishonesty and bias. VOCABULARY scientific method observation hypothesis prediction experiment control group experimental group independent variable dependent variable theory peer review All researchers, such as the one releasing an owl above, use the scientific method to answer the questions they have about nature. FIGURE 1-8 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 14 CHAPTER 1 OBSERVING AND ASKING QUESTIONS The scientific method generally begins with an unexplained observa- tion about nature. For example, people have noticed for thousands of years that owls can catch prey in near total darkness. As shown in steps and of Figure 1-9, an observation may then raise ques- tions. The owl observation raises the question: How does an owl detect prey in the dark? FORMING A HYPOTHESIS After stating a question, a biologist lists possible answers to a sci- entific question—hypotheses. Good hypotheses answer a question and are testable in the natural world. For example, as shown in step Figure 1-9, there are several possible hypotheses for the question of how owls hunt at night: (a) owls hunt by keen vision in the dark; (b) owls hunt by superb hearing; or (c) owls hunt by detecting the prey’s body heat. Predicting To test a hypothesis, scientists make a prediction that logically fol- lows from the hypothesis. A prediction is what is expected to hap- pen if each hypothesis were true. For example, if hypothesis (a) is true, (owls hunt by keen night vision) then one can predict that the owl will pounce only on the mouse in either a light or a dark room. If hypothesis (b) is true (owls hunt by hearing), then one can pre- dict that in a lighted room, the owl will pounce closer to the mouse’s head. But, in a dark room, the owl should pounce closer to a rustling leaf attached to the mouse. Finally, if hypothesis (c) is true (owls hunt by sensing body heat), then an owl would strike only the prey no matter the room conditions, because owls hunt by detecting the prey’s body heat. 3 1 2 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. A scientific study includes observations, questions, hypotheses, predictions, experiments, data analysis, and conclu- sions. A biologist can use the scientific method to set up an experiment to learn how an owl captures prey at night. FIGURE 1-9 1 OBSERVATION Owls capture prey on dark nights. 2 QUESTION How do owls detect prey on dark nights? 3 HYPOTHESES a) Owls hunt in the dark by vision. b) Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. c) Owls hunt in the dark by sensing body heat. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 15 Notice that these predictions make it difficult to distinguish be- tween the vision and body heat hypotheses. The reason is that both hypotheses predict that the owl could grab the mouse in a dark room. Also, these three hypotheses do not eliminate all other factors that could influence how the owl finds its prey. However, testing predictions can allow one to begin rejecting hypotheses and thus to get closer to determining the answer(s) to a question. DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT Biologists often test hypotheses by setting up an experiment. Step in Figure 1-9 outlines an experiment to test the hypotheses about how an owl hunts at night. First, experimenters set up a room with an owl perch high on one side and a small trap door on the other side for releasing mice. Then, they tied a leaf to each mouse’s tail with a string and released each mouse into the room. Next, each mouse ran silently across the room, but the leaf trailed behind, making a rustling noise. During half of the trials, the lights were on. During the other half, the room was dark. Technicians videotaped all the action in the chamber with an infrared light, which owls cannot see. The researchers then viewed the videos and measured the position of the owl’s strike relative to each mouse’s head. Performing the Experiment Many scientists use a controlled experiment to test their hypotheses. A controlled experiment compares an experimental group and a control group and only has one variable. The control group pro- vides a normal standard against which the biologist can compare results of the experimental group. The experimental group is iden- tical to the control group except for one factor, the independent variable. The experimenter manipulates the independent variable, sometimes called the manipulated variable. 4 4 EXPERIMENT 5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Measure and compare the distance from the owl’s strike to the mouse and to the leaf in light and dark. 6 CONCLUSION Data supported the hearing hypothesis: Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. prey Test predictions of the three hypotheses. Control: In the light Experimental: In the dark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Predicting Results Materials 2 Petri dishes with agar, cellophane tape, wax pen Procedure 1. Open one of the Petri dishes, and streak your finger across the surface of the agar. 2. Replace the lid, and seal it with the tape. Label this Petri dish with your name and a number 1. 3. Seal the second Petri dish with- out removing the lid. Label this Petri dish with your name and the number 2. 4. Write a prediction about what will happen in each dish. Store your dishes as your teacher directs. Record your observations. Follow your teacher’s directions for disposal of your dishes. Analysis Was your prediction accurate? What evidence can you cite to support your prediction? If you did not obtain the results you predicted, would you change your testing method or your prediction? Explain. Evaluate the importance of obtaining a result that does not support your prediction. Quick Lab mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 15 16 CHAPTER 1 The independent variable in the owl experiment is the presence or absence of light. In the owl experiment, the control group hunts in the light, and the experimental group hunts in the dark. In addi- tion to varying the independent variable, a scientist observes or measures another factor called the dependent variable, or respond- ing variable, because it is affected by the independent variable. In the owl experiment, the dependent variable is distance from the owl’s strike to the mouse’s head. Testing the Experiment Some controlled experiments are conducted “blind.” In other words, the biologist who scores the results is unaware of whether a given subject is part of the experimental or control group. This factor helps eliminate experimenter bias. Experiments should also be repeated, because living systems are variable. Moreover, scien- tists must collect enough data to find meaningful results. COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA Most experiments measure a variable—the dependent variable. This measurement provides quantitative data, data measured in numbers. For example, in the experiment above, scientists mea- sured the distance of an owl’s strike from the prey’s head in cen- timeters, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. An event’s duration in milliseconds is also an example of quantitative data. Biologists usually score the results of an experiment by using one of their senses. They might see or hear the results of an experiment. Scientists also extend their senses with a micro- scope for tiny objects or a microphone for soft sounds. In the owl experiment, biologists extended their vision with infrared cameras. Analyzing and Comparing Data After collecting data from a field study or an experiment and then organizing it, biologists then analyze the data. In analyzing data, the goal is to determine whether the data are reliable, and whether they support or fail to support the predictions of the hypothesis. To do so, scientists may use statistics to help determine relation- ships between the variables involved. They can then compare their data with other data that were obtained in other similar studies. It is also important at this time to determine possible sources of error in the experiment just per- formed. Scientists usually display their data in tables or graphs when analyzing it. For the owl study, biologists could have made a bar graph such as the one in Figure 1-10, which shows the average distance from the owl’s strike relative to the mouse’s head or the leaf in the light and in the dark. 5 5 0 10 15 20 25 In the light In the dark Average distance from strike (cm) Distance Between Owl Strike and a Mouse or From a Leaf Attached to Mouse 30 Mouse Leaf Mouse Leaf The data below are hypothetical results that might occur from the described owl experiment.The independent variable is the darkness of the room, and the dependent variable is how far the owl struck from the mouse’s head.The data show that the owl strikes more accurately at the mouse in the light but strikes more accurately at the leaf in the dark. FIGURE 1-10 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 17 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Biologists analyze their tables, graphs, and charts to draw conclu- sions about whether or not a hypothesis is supported, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. The hypothetical owl data show that in the light, owls struck with greater accuracy at the mouse than at the leaf, but in the dark, owls struck with greater accuracy at the leaf than the mouse. Thus, the findings support the hearing hypothe- sis, but not the vision hypothesis. An experiment can only disprove, not prove, a hypothesis. For example, one cannot conclude from the results that the hearing hypothesis is proven to be true. Perhaps the owl uses an unknown smell to strike at the mouse. One can only reject the vision hypothe- sis because it did not predict the results of the experiment correctly. Acceptance of a hypothesis is always tentative in science. The scientific community revises its understanding of phenomena, based on new data. Having ruled out one hypothesis, a biologist will devise more tests to try to rule out any remaining hypotheses. Making Inferences Scientists often draw inferences from data gathered during a field study or experiment. An inference (IN-fuhr-uhns) is a conclusion made on the basis of facts and previous knowledge rather than on direct observations. Unlike a hypothesis, an inference is not directly testable. In the owl study, it is inferred that the owl detects prey from a distance rather than by direct touch. Applying Results and Building Models As shown in Figure 1-11, scientists often apply their findings to solve practical problems. They also build models to represent or describe things. For example in 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick used cardboard balls and wire bars to build physical models of atoms in an attempt to understand the structure of DNA. Mathematical models are sets of equations that describe how dif- ferent measurable items interact in a system. The experimenter can adjust variables to better model the real-world data. CONSTRUCTING A THEORY When a set of related hypotheses is confirmed to be true many times, and it can explain a great amount of data, scientists often reclassify it as a theory. Some examples include the quantum the- ory, the cell theory, or the theory of evolution. People commonly use the word “theory” in a different way than scientists use the word. People may say “It’s just a theory” suggesting that an idea is untested, but scientists view a theory as a highly tested, generally accepted principle that explains a vast number of observations and experimental data. 6 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Biologists often apply their knowledge of the natural world to practical problems. Studies on the owl’s keen ability to locate sounds in space despite background noise are helping biotechnologists and bioengineers develop better solutions for people with impaired hearing, such as the people shown in this picture. FIGURE 1-11 18 CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATING IDEAS An essential aspect of scientific research is scientists working together. Scientists often work together in research teams or sim- ply share research results with other scientists. This is done by publishing findings in scientific journals or presenting them at sci- entific meetings, as shown in Figure 1-12. Sharing information allows others working independently to verify findings or to con- tinue work on established results. For example, Roger Payne pub- lished the results of his owl experiments in a journal in 1971. Then, other biologists could repeat it for verification or use it to study the mechanisms introduced by the paper. With the growing impor- tance of science in solving societal issues, it is becoming increas- ingly vital for scientists to be able to communicate with the public at large. Publishing a Paper Scientists submit research papers to scientific journals for publica- tion. A typical research paper has four sections. First, the Introduction poses the problem and hypotheses to be investigated. Next, the Materials and Methods describe how researchers proceeded with the experiment. Third, the Results state the findings the experiment presented, and finally, the Discussion gives the significance of the experiment and future directions the scientists will take. Job Description Forensic biolo- gists are scientists who study biological materials to investigate potential crimes and other legal issues against humans and animals. Forensic scientists have knowledge in areas of biology, such as DNA and blood pattern analysis, and work in private sector and public laboratories. Focus On a Forensic Biologist As a law enforcement forensic specialist for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Beverly Villarreal assists the game warden in investigations of fish and wildlife violations, such as illegal hunting and fishing. Villarreal analyzes blood and tissue samples to identify species of animals such as fish, birds, and reptiles. Her work helps game wardens as they enforce state laws regarding hunting and fishing. Most people think of forensic scientists as the glamorous crime investigators on TV, but according to Villarreal real forensic scientists “spend a great deal of time at a lab bench running analysis after analysis.” Many of the methods used in animal forensics, such as DNA sequenc- ing, are also used in human forensics. Education and Skills • High school—three years of science courses and four years of math courses. • College—bachelor of science in biol- ogy, including course work in zoology and genetics, plus experience in per- forming DNA analyses. • Skills—patience, attention to detail, and ability to use fine tools. Careers in BIOLOGY Forensic Biologist For more about careers, visit go.hrw.com and type in the keyword HM6 Careers. www.scilinks.org Topic: Scientific Investigations Keyword: HM61358 mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 18 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 19 1. What two principles make the scientific method a unique process? 2. Define the roles of observations and hypotheses in science. 3. Summarize the parts of a controlled experiment. 4. Summarize how we make conclusions about the results of an experiment. 5. Why is the phrase, “it’s just a theory” misleading? 6. Give another example of a conflict of interest. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Making Hypotheses On a nocturnal owl’s skull, one ear points up, and the other ear points down. Suggest a hypothesis for this observation. 8. Designing Experiments Design an experiment to establish if owls hunt by keen sight or hunt by heat seeking. 9. Calculating Information What was the average distance between the owl’s strike and the mouse if the recorded differences in this experiment were 25, 22, 19, 19, and 15? SECTION 3 REVIEW After scientists submit their papers to a scientific journal, the editors of that journal will send the paper out for peer review. In a peer review, scientists who are experts in the field anonymously read and critique that research paper. They determine if a paper pro- vides enough information so that the experiment can be duplicated and if the author used good experimental controls and reached an accurate conclusion. They also check if the paper is written clearly enough for broad understanding. Careful analysis of each other’s research by fellow scientists is essential to making scientific progress and preventing scientific dishonesty. HONESTY AND BIAS The scientific community depends on both honesty and good sci- ence. While designing new studies, experimenters must be very careful to prevent previous ideas and biases from tainting both the experimental process and the conclusions. Scientists have to keep in mind that they are always trying to disprove their favorite ideas. Scientists repeat experiments to verify previous findings. This allows for science to have a method for self-correction and it also keeps researchers honest and credible to their peers in the field. Conflict of Interest For most scientists, maintaining a good reputation for collecting and presenting valid data is more important than temporary prestige or income. So, scientists try to avoid any potential conflicts of interest. For example, a scientist who owns a biotechnology company and manufactures a drug would not be the best researcher to critically test that drug’s safety and effectiveness. To avoid this potential con- flict of interest, the scientist allows an unaffected party, such as a research group, to test the drug’s effectiveness. The threat of a potential scandal based on misleading data or conclusions is a pow- erful force in science that helps keep scientists honest and fair. Scientists present their experiments in various forms. The scientists above are presenting their work in the form of a poster at a scientific meeting. FIGURE 1-12 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. The Internet can provide a wealth of scientific information for a report, but the information may not always be credible or accurate. You can use the methods above to check the accuracy and credibility of your sources. SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY SCIENCE ON THE INTERNET: A New Information Age I n the past, students research- ing a science topic would typ- ically begin their research by visiting a library to use printed reference materials, such as encyclopedias. Today, most stu- dents research topics by using a computer and searching for information on the Internet. The Internet can provide students with a wealth of infor- mation. But which Web sites have accurate information, and which Web sites do not? Checking Web Addresses Students should use the Web address, or URL, to establish the Web site’s credibility. Usually, the domain name can suggest who has published the Web site. Web sites can be pub- lished by governmental agen- cies (ends in “dot gov” or .gov), by educational institutions (ends in “dot edu” or .edu), by organizations (ends in “dot org” or .org), or by commercial businesses (ends in “dot com” or .com). Government Web sites are usually reliable. Examples of credible governmental Web sites are the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). University and medical school sites are also reliable sources of information. Many organiza- tions that research and teach the public about specific diseases and conditions can also provide reliable information. Examples of such organizations are the American Cancer Society and the American Heart Association. Evaluating Web Sites The credibility of the author of the Web site should also be checked. Make sure the author is not trying to sell anything and is established in his or her field. For example, a health Web site’s author should be a med- ical professional. It is also important to check the date that the information was posted on the Web to ensure that the information is current. Also, the Web site should provide ref- erences from valid sources, such as scientific journals or govern- ment publications. Finally, the student should always double-check informa- tion between several reliable Web sites. If two or three reliable sites provide the same informa- tion, the student can feel confi- dent in using that information. Web Sites for Students The Internet Connect boxes in this textbook have all been reviewed by professionals at the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). Students can trust that these sites are reliable sources for science- or health-related topics. REVIEW 1. Which types of Web addresses are the most reliable? 2. List four important features to evaluate when using a Web site for research. 3. Supporting Reasoned Opinions Why do you think a Web site that is advertising a product may not offer accurate information? REVIEW 20 www.scilinks.org Topic: Using the Internet Keyword: HM61589 mb06se_biosts.qxd 5/18/07 10:42 AM Page 20 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES With proper equipment and good methods, biologists can see, manipulate, and understand the natural world in new ways. Microscopes are one of many useful tools used to unlock nature’s biological secrets. MICROSCOPES AS TOOLS Tools are objects used to improve the performance of a task. Microscopes are tools that extend human vision by making enlarged images of objects. Biologists use microscopes to study organisms, cells, cell parts, and molecules. Microscopes reveal details that otherwise might be difficult or impossible to see. Light Microscopes To see small organisms and cells, biologists typically use a light microscope, such as the one shown in Figure 1-13. A compound light microscope is a microscope that shines light through a spec- imen and has two lenses to magnify an image. To use this micro- scope, one first mounts the specimen to be viewed on a glass slide. The specimen must be thin enough for light to pass through it. For tiny pond organisms, such as the single-celled paramecium, light passing through the organism is not a problem. For thick objects, such as plant stems, biologists must cut thin slices for viewing. There are four major parts of a compound light microscope. For further description of the parts of a micro- scope, see the Appendix. 1. Eyepiece The eyepiece (ocular (AHK-yoo-luhr) lens) magnifies the image, usually 10 times. 2. Objective Lens Light passes through the specimen and then through the objective lens, which is located directly above the specimen. The objective lens enlarges the image of the specimen. Scientists sometimes use stains to make the image easier to see. 3. Stage The stage is a platform that supports a slide holding the specimen. The slide is placed over the opening in the stage of the microscope. 4. Light Source The light source is a light bulb that provides light for viewing the image. It can be either light reflected with a mirror or an incandescent light from a small lamp. SECTION 4 OBJECTIVES ● List the function of each of the major parts of a compound light microscope. ● Compare two kinds of electron microscopes. ● Describe the importance of having the SI system of measurement. ● State some examples of good laboratory practice. VOCABULARY compound light microscope eyepiece (ocular lens) objective lens stage light source magnification nosepiece resolution scanning electron microscope transmission electron microscope metric system base unit Compound light microscopes open the human eye to an interesting world including tiny pond organisms, healthy and diseased cells, and the functioning of cell parts. FIGURE 1-13 Objective lens Eyepiece (ocular lens) Stage Light THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 21 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 22 CHAPTER 1 Magnification and Resolution Microscopes vary in powers of magnification and resolution. Magnification is the increase of an object’s apparent size. Revolving the nosepiece, the structure that holds the set of objective lens, rotates these lenses into place above the specimen. In a typical com- pound light microscope, the most powerful objective lens produces an image up to 100 times (100) the specimen’s actual size. The degree of enlargement is called the power of magnification of the lens. The standard ocular lens magnifies a specimen 10 times (10). To compute the power of magnification of a microscope, the power of magnification of the strongest objective lens (in this case, 100) is multiplied by the power of magnification of the ocular lens (10). The result is a total power of magnification of 1000. Resolution (REZ-uh-LOO-shuhn) is the power to show details clearly in an image. The physical properties of light limit the ability of light microscopes to resolve images, as shown in Figure 1-14a. At pow- ers of magnification beyond about 2,000, the image of the speci- men becomes fuzzy. For this reason, scientists use other microscopes to view very small cellsThe outdoor recreation industry represents a new economy. The leaders of this economy will need to have a deep understanding of our local natural resources and integrate the components of innovation, health, and wellness into a vision for what comes next. Everyone wins when you do the right things for the environment, the community, and the venture. We want to offer the young generation a chance to be part of the foundation we are building for adventure tourism in the emirates and the region. Adventure Tourism Is the Fastest-Growing Global Niche. What does this mean? It means that there’s plenty of room for young experts to enter the field. It’s not just the "guides" that the adventure tourism industry needs. It’s everything that goes with it, from adventure tourism accommodations to trip planners, event managers, marketing and finance directors, advertising, public relations, and communications. We want to highlight that adventure tourism requires more than just guides, and various careers within adventure tourism play a big role in attracting high-value customers, supporting local economies, and encouraging sustainable practices. The continued growth of this sector creates net positive impacts not only for tourism, but also for destination economies, their people, and their environment. 1) Understanding Tourism Tourism is one of the world’s fastest-growing industries and a major foreign exchange and employment generation for many countries. It is one of the most remarkable economic and social phenomena. 2) Understanding Adventure Tourism Adventure tourism is defined as the movement of the people from one to another place outside their comfort zone for exploration or travel to remote areas, exotic and possibly hostile areas. Adventure tourism is a type of tourism in which tourists engage in adventure activities such as trekking, climbing, rafting, scuba diving, or the likes. Adventure tourism gains much of its excitement by allowing the tourist to step outside their comfort zone. This may be from experiencing culture shock or through the performance of acts that required some degree of risk whether real or perceived. It is also about connecting with a new culture or a new landscape and being physically active at the same time. It is not only about being risky or pushing your boundaries. In fact, it is especially important to know and respect your limits while you are in an unfamiliar area. Adventure travel is a leisure activity that takes place in an unusual, exotic, remote, or wilderness destination. It tends to be associated with high levels of activity by the participant, most of it outdoors. Adventure tourists expect to experience various levels of risk, excitement, and tranquillity and be personally tested. In particular, they are explorers of unspoiled, exotic parts of the planet and also seek personal challenges. The main factor distinguishing adventure tourism from all other forms of tourism is the planning and preparation involved. 3) Definitions of Adventure Tourism Adventure tourism is a new concept in the tourism industry. The tourism industry adopted adventure tourism, but there is not any specific definition of adventure tourism. Most commentators concur that adventure tourism is a niche sector of the tourism industry, but there are many other niche sectors in tourism that have the same characteristics that overlap with adventure tourism such as ecotourism, activity tourism, or adventure travel. One of them can confuse. Adventure tourism is a complicated and ambiguous topic. Some important definitions of adventure tourism are as following: A) According to the Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA): “adventure tourism is a tourist activity that includes physical activity, cultural exchange, or activities in nature.” B) According to Muller and Cleaver: “Adventure tourism is characterized by its ability to provide the tourist with relatively high levels of sensory stimulation, usually achieved by including physically challenging experiential components with the tourist experience.” C) The Canadian Tourism Commission in 1995 defines adventure tourism as: “an outdoor leisure activity that takes place in an unusual, exotic, remote or wilderness destination, involves some form of unconventional means of transportation, and tends to be associated with low or high levels of activity.” D) According to Sung et al: “adventure tourism is the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the interactions of adventure touristic activities with the natural environment away from the participant’s usual place of residence area and containing elements of risk in which the outcome is influenced by the participation, setting, and the organizer of the tourist’s experience.” E) According to UNWTO: ” adventure tourism can be domestic or international, and like all travel, it must include an overnight stay, but not last longer than one year.” 4) Types of Adventure Tourism Adventure tourism has grown exponentially all over the world in recent years with tourists visiting destinations previously undiscovered. This allows for new destinations to market themselves as truly unique, appealing to those travellers looking for a rare, incomparable experience. Adventure tourism includes various activities like caving, hiking, sailing, trekking, etc. Adventure tourism is categorized into two categories: • Hard Adventure • Soft Adventure Hard Adventure Hard adventure refers to activities with high levels of risk, requiring intense commitment and advanced skills. Hard tourism includes the activities like climbing mountains/rock/ice, trekking, caving, etc. Hard adventure activities are highly risked in nature. Professional guides and advanced levels of skills are required to perform these activities. Many tourists died during climbing mountains, caving every day. Soft Adventure Soft adventure refers to activities with a perceived risk but low levels of risk, requiring minimal commitment and beginner skills; experienced guides lead most of these activities. Soft tourism includes the activities like backpacking, camping, hiking, kayaking, etc. Soft adventure activities are low-risk in nature. Professional guides lead these activities. Soft adventure is a popular category in adventure tourism as it caters to a wider audience. 5) Adventure Tourism Activities Adventure travellers are early adopters by nature, meaning they are generally more willing to try new destinations, activities, and travel products. Popular activities change rapidly, and it seems there is a new twist on an existing sport every year. Some activities have low risk and some have high. Adventure tourism activities are classified into two types: • Hard Adventure Activities • Soft Adventure Activities Hard Adventure Activities Hard adventure activities are highly risky and dangerous in nature. These activities are as the following: • Caving • Mountain Climbing • Rock Climbing • Ice Climbing • Trekking • Sky Diving Soft Adventure Activities These activities are less dangerous and risk as compared to hard adventure activities. These activities are mostly lead by professional guides. An example of these activities are: • Backpacking • Bird watching • Camping • Canoeing • Eco-tourism • Fishing • Hiking • Horseback riding • Hunting • Kayaking/sea/whitewater • Orienteering • Safaris • Scuba Diving • Snorkeling • Skiing • Snowboarding • Surfing Adventure tourism activities sit well with the environment because the natural world provides us with the resources for many of the activities that provide risk, challenge, sensory stimulus, novelty, discovery, and so on. 6) Characteristics and Features of Adventure Tourism The threefold combination of activity, nature, and culture marks adventure travel as an all-around challenge. Some unique characteristics and features of adventure tourism are as the following: • Physical activity, like involving physical exertion or psychomotor skills • Contact with nature, activities bringing contact with the natural world in general, or with specific wildlife • Contact with different cultures, i.e. people, faith, lifestyles • Journeys for example vehicle, animal, or human power • Uncertain outcomes • Danger and risk • Challenges • Anticipated rewards • Novelty • Stimulation and excitement • Exploration and discovery • Contrasting emotions 7) Adventure Tourism Supplier A tourism supply chain is the system of people, products, activities, and materials that get a product or service from its raw state through production and distribution to the consumer. As with any sector, volume discounts drive the mass price point, so major retailers primarily market select trips that sell in high volume. The supply chain for these mass tourism products is often very simple, comprising only transportation and accommodation elements. The adventure tourism supply chain is more complex. Niche products often require specializes in knowledge and operations. Adventure tourism’s supply chain linkages go very deep, and this is one of the key reasons that adventure tourism delivers greater benefits at the local level. Supply chains vary from destination to destination. Without a proper supply chain, the tourism sector cannot survive. Tourism suppliers are the backbone of the tourism industry. Adventure tourism suppliers work at a different, different level like as domestic as well international level. 8) Adventure Tourism Importance and Benefits Adventure tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the tourism sector, attracting high-value customers, supporting local economies, and encouraging sustainable practices. The continued growth of this sector creates net positive impacts not only for tourism, but also for destination economies, their people, and their environment. Some importance and benefits of adventure tourism are: A) Employment Generation Adventure tourism generates jobs. Adventure tourism generates directs jobs to accommodation, transportation sector, and travel agencies or tour operators. Adventure tourism also provides indirect jobs to tourism suppliers. Adventure tourism plays an important role in the generation of employment in the economy. B) Foreign Exchange Adventure tourism attracts foreign tourists on a large scale, as a result, it helps in foreign exchange generation. When tourists travel to another country, they spend a large amount of money on accommodation, transportation, and shopping. Adventure tourism generates foreign exchange and supports the economy of the host country. C) Economy Development Adventure tourism helps in the development of the host country’s economy. Adventure tourism activities directly support the economy in various forms. The more tourists, the more economic growth. D) Support Local Communities Adventure tourism helps in the development of infrastructure and supports local communities. Adventure tourism activities directly contributed to the local economy of the communities and increase local people's living standards. E) Conservation of Natural Resources Adventure tourism activities are nature-based activities. Leaders in the adventure tourism industry are dedicated to making this tourism segment as sustainable as possible. They help in the conservation of natural resources as well as culture. F) Creating Business Opportunities Adventure tourism activities create new business opportunities. Several companies specialize in helping emerging adventure tourism operators market their products. Each new adventure tourism activity creates a new business opportunity. G) Local and Foreign Investment Adventure tourism creates business opportunities; as a result, it attracts local as well as international investors. Investors invest their money in accommodation, transportation, and travel trade organization. Adventure tourism plays an important role in the economy of the host country.In our classroom, we believe in teamwork and responsibility. That's why we have different classroom jobs that students can take on to help make our learning environment run smoothly. Each job comes with specific tasks and responsibilities, and it is important for the students to understand the requirements and expectations for each role. Let's take a closer look at the different classroom jobs available to our sixth-grade students: 1. Teacher's Assistant: The Teacher's Assistant plays a crucial role in our classroom. Their main responsibility is to remind the teacher of important tasks that need to be done throughout the day. This includes taking attendance, passing out papers to go home, and any other "do not forget" tasks that the teacher might need help with. The Teacher's Assistant needs to be organized, responsible, and reliable. 2. Supplies Monitor: The Supplies Monitor is responsible for ensuring that all classroom supplies are put away neatly. This includes making sure that pencils, pens, markers, and other materials are returned to their designated places after each use. The Supplies Monitor needs to be attentive to detail and have good organizational skills. 3. Technology Assistant: With our use of technology in the classroom, the Technology Assistant plays a vital role. They help students and guest teachers who might not be tech-savvy with chromebooks and other devices. The Technology Assistant should be comfortable with technology, patient, and willing to help others. 4. Room Monitor: The Room Monitor is in charge of checking desks and floors before lunch dismissal. They make sure that everything is clean and organized before we leave the classroom. The Room Monitor needs to be responsible, observant, and take pride in maintaining a tidy learning environment. 5. Line Leader: The Line Leader has the important task of leading the class and setting the pace when we transition from one place to another. They need to walk in a straight line, follow instructions, and be a positive role model for their peers. The Line Leader should be reliable, responsible, and demonstrate good leadership skills. 6. Messenger: The Messenger is responsible for taking things to the office or picking up items that the teacher needs. They need to be trustworthy, reliable, and able to follow instructions. The Messenger should also have good time management skills to ensure tasks are completed promptly. 7. Host/Hostess: When visitors come to our classroom and need assistance while the teacher is busy, the Host/Hostess is there to help. They greet visitors, provide directions, and offer any necessary support. The Host/Hostess should have good communication skills, be friendly, and approachable. 8. Guest Teacher Guide: In the event of a guest teacher, this student will help them take attendance and assist the teacher with anything they need help with. The Guest Teacher Guide needs to be responsible, reliable, and have good communication skills. They should also be respectful and supportive of the guest teacher. 9. Researcher: During whole-class discussions, if there is a question or topic that needs further exploration, the Researcher steps in. They use the internet to look up information and provide additional insights. The Researcher should have good research skills, be able to navigate online resources, and share accurate information with the class. 10. Secretary: The Secretary takes down notes when directed in the class notebook and collects any papers for absent students, placing them in their designated file. They need to be organized, attentive, and have good handwriting. It is important to note that all of these roles come with certain requirements. To be considered for any of these jobs, you must be punctual and have good attendance. This means arriving to school and class on time every day. Additionally, honesty and reliability are crucial traits for anyone taking on these responsibilities. By working together and taking on these classroom jobs, we can create an environment that is conducive to learning, organized, and supportive. Each of these roles plays a vital part in our classroom community, and we appreciate the efforts of all students who take on these responsibilities. Let's make our classroom a place where everyone feels valued and can thrive!Create me a multiple choice test questions with 4 options on the following topic:Consumer Education for Different Audience 1. Children and Youth: - Focus: Building foundational knowledge about basic consumer concepts, making safe choices, understanding money and value, and recognizing scams and unsafe situations. 2. Teens and Young Adults: - Focus: Building financial literacy, responsible debt management, understanding contracts and agreements, responsible technology use, online safety, and consumer rights. 3. Working Adults and Families: - Focus: Managing budgets, making informed purchasing decisions, understanding credit and debt, finding consumer protection resources, and navigating complex financial products (mortgages, insurance, investments). 4. Seniors: - Focus: Protecting themselves from scams and fraud, understanding common consumer issues like telemarketing, identity theft, and online scams, managing medications and healthcare costs, and accessing community resources. 5. Special Populations: - Focus: Adapting consumer education programs to the specific needs of people with disabilities, immigrants, refugees, and other marginalized communities. 6. Business and Industry:- Focus: Understanding ethical marketing practices, complying with consumer protection laws, and providing clear and accurate information to consumers. 7. Policymakers and Regulators: - Focus: Understanding consumer needs, developing effective consumer protection laws, enforcing regulations, and ensuring a fair and competitive marketplace. Adapting consumer education programs for children, teens, and seniors requires tailoring content and delivery methods to their unique needs and learning styles. Children (Ages 5-12): - Understanding the concept of money: Teaching children about saving, spending, and the value of money. - Developing basic budgeting skills: Helping children learn to make choices about how to spend their allowance or pocket money. EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES •Focus on basic concepts: Introduce core concepts like saving, spending, and budgeting in a fun and engaging way. Use simple language and relatable examples. •Real-life scenarios: Use age-appropriate scenarios to illustrate financial concepts, like buying toys or snacks. •Parental involvement: Encourage parent participation and provide resources to help them reinforce lessons at home. Teens (Ages 13-18): - Building budgeting and financial planning skills: Teaching teens how to manage their money, set financial goals, and plan for the future. - Navigating the digital marketplace: Equipping teens with the knowledge and skills to make safe and informed online purchases, understand digital marketing, and protect themselves from scams. EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES • Practical skills: Focus on skills relevant to teens, like managing money for social activities, saving for college, and understanding credit cards. • Digital literacy: Address the growing influence of online shopping, social media advertising, and financial scams. • Real-world applications: Connect financial concepts to real-life decisions teens make, like choosing a part-time job or making purchases online. Seniors (Ages 65+) - Managing retirement savings and healthcare costs: Providing information and resources on retirement planning, Medicare and Medicaid, and other healthcare options. - Navigating the digital world: Offering technology training and resources to help seniors access online services and information safely and securely. EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES • Addressing specific concerns: Focus on topics relevant to senior citizens, like retirement planning, managing healthcare expenses, and avoiding scams. • Clear and concise communication: Use simple language and visual aids to ensure easy understanding. • Social interaction: Create opportunities for seniors to share experiences and learn from each other. Teaching Financial Literacy in school and Communities In Schools: Curriculum Integration: Financial literacy concepts can be seamlessly integrated into existing subjects, making learning more relevant and engaging. - Math: Budgeting exercises, calculating interest rates, analyzing financial data, and understanding compound interest are all natural applications of math skills. - Social Studies: Exploring the history of money, financial institutions, economic systems, and the impact of financial decisions on society provide valuable context. - Economics: Discussions about supply and demand, inflation, investment, and the role of consumers in the economy enhance financial literacy. Dedicated Courses: Offering elective courses or workshops specifically focused on personal finance provides deeper dives into crucial topics. - Personal Finance: Cover budgeting, saving, investing, credit, debt management, and insurance. - Entrepreneurship: Introduce concepts like business planning, marketing, financial forecasting, and managing cash flow. In Communities: Community Centers and Libraries: Workshops, seminars, and classes tailored to adults and families provide accessible learning opportunities. - Financial Planning: Cover budgeting, retirement planning, debt management, and estate planning. - Homeownership: Provide guidance on buying, selling, and maintaining a home. - Consumer Protection: Educate individuals about their rights and how to avoid scams. Partnerships with Financial Institutions: Collaborations with banks, credit unions, and financial advisors offer valuable resources, workshops, and financial literacy programs. Consumer Education for Low-Income and Vulnerable Populations Low-income refers to individuals or households with limited financial resources, typically below a certain threshold. Low-income individuals may face challenges like: 1. Limited education and job opportunities 2. Poor living conditions and housing 3. Food insecurity and malnutrition Causes of low income: 1. Unemployment or underemployment 2. Low-paying jobs or minimum wage 3. Limited education or skills 4. Single parenthood or large family size Vulnerable population'' is a term that is used to describe a group of people who possess some sort of disadvantage. elderly people, people with low incomes, homeless people, people in prison, migrant workers, pregnant women, Family Consumer Education: Managing Household Finances and Resources Financial literacy is the ability to understand and manage personal finances effectively. 1. Debt Debt is money you spend that isn’t yours. If you borrow money from the bank, use a credit card, or take out a short-term loan, or a payday loan, you are accumulating debt. Good debt is considered money borrowed for things that are absolutely necessary for making a life e.g. a house and for advancing your money-making potential e.g. an education. Bad debt is considered borrowing money or using a credit card to pay for things you don’t need, such as expensive clothes, hi-tech electronics, eating out at restaurants, going on holidays, etc. 2. Saving Saving is an essential part of financial wellness, a secure present, and a happy future. 3. Budgeting Budgeting is the life skill of planning and managing your money. By understanding exactly where your money goes every month, you are empowered to create an actionable plan by which you can spend less, by curtailing those unnecessary expenses and saving more for the things you need and want. 4. Investing Investing is all about creating and growing the wealth you need to enjoy a financially secure and happy future. It’s about putting your money into something that will make you a profit over time, such as property, retirement funds, and unit trusts Integrating Consumer Education into the Home Economics Curriculum. Integrating consumer education into the home economics curriculum can provide students with essential skills for making informed choices about their personal finances, food, clothing, and overall well-being. Here are some strategies and ideas for effectively incorporating consumer education: Financial Literacy Budgeting: Teach students how to create and manage a personal budget, including setting financial goals, tracking expenses, and understanding savings. Saving and Investment: Cover the basics of saving, including different saving accounts, and introduce concepts related to investing. Food and Nutrition Food Label Literacy: Engage students in learning how to read and interpret food labels, including nutrition facts and ingredient lists. Grocery Shopping Skills: Teach students how to compare product costs, understand unit pricing, and make healthy, budget-friendly choices while shopping. Clothing and Textile Education Consumer Choices in Clothing:Discuss factors influencing clothing purchases, such as quality, price, and sustainability. Fashion and Trends: Analyze the impact of marketing and advertising on consumer behavior regarding clothing. Sustainable Purchasing Eco-Friendly Choices: Raise awareness about environmentally friendly products and the importance of sustainability in consumer choices. Project-Based Learning - Assign real-life projects where students must apply their knowledge, such as creating a meal plan within a budget, planning a shopping list based on nutrient needs, or evaluating the cost-effectiveness of different products. Technology Integration - Use technology to teach students about online shopping, price comparison websites, and apps that aid budgeting and financial planning. Collaborative Learning Opportunities - Organize team projects where students work together to solve consumer-related problems, emphasizing teamwork and communication skills. Assessment and Reflection - Incorporate assessments that allow students to reflect on what they have learned about consumer education and how they can apply these skills in their daily lives. Plant cells have three kinds of structures that are not found in animal cells and that are extremely important to plant survival: plastids, central vacuoles, and cell walls. PLANT CELLS Most of the organelles and other parts of the cell just described are common to all eukaryotic cells. However, plant cells have three additional kinds of structures that are extremely important to plant function: cell walls, large central vacuoles, and plastids. To understand why plant cells have structures not found in ani- mal cells, consider how a plant’s lifestyle differs from an animal’s. Plants make their own carbon-containing molecules directly from carbon taken in from the environment. Plant cells take carbon diox- ide gas from the air, and in a process called photosynthesis, they convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars. The organelles and structures in plant cells are shown in Figure 4-21. SECTION 4 OBJECTIVES ● List three structures that are present in plant cells but not in animal cells. ● Compare the plasma membrane, the primary cell wall, and the secondary cell wall. ● Explain the role of the central vacuole. ● Describe the roles of plastids in the life of a plant. ● Identify features that distinguish prokaryotes, eukaryotes, plant cells, and animal cells. VOCABULARY cell wall central vacuole plastid chloroplast thylakoid chlorophyll Chloroplast Golgi apparatus Mitochondrion Cell membrane Nucleolus Nucleus Cytoskeleton Rough endoplasmic reticulum Pore Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Central vacuole Ribosome Cell wall In addition to containing almost all of the types of organelles that animal cells contain, plant cells contain three unique features. Those features are the cell wall, the central vacuole, and plastids, such as chloroplasts. FIGURE 4-21 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 88 CHAPTER 4 CELL WALL The cell wall is a rigid layer that lies outside the cell’s plasma membrane. Plant cell walls contain a carbohydrate called cellulose. Cellulose is embedded in a matrix of proteins and other carbohy- drates that form a stiff box around each cell. Pores in the cell wall allow water, ions, and some molecules to enter and exit the cell. Primary and Secondary Cell Walls The main component of the cell wall, cellulose, is made directly on the surface of the plasma membrane by enzymes that travel along the membrane. These enzymes are guided by microtubules inside the plasma membrane. Growth of the primary cell wall occurs in one direction, based on the orientation of the microtubules. Other components of the cell wall are made in the ER. These materials move in vesicles to the Golgi and then to the cell surface. Some plants also produce a secondary cell wall. When the cell stops growing, it secretes the secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall. The secondary cell wall is very strong but can no longer expand. The wood in desks and tabletops is made of billions of secondary cell walls. The cells inside the walls have died and disintegrated. CENTRAL VACUOLE Plant cells may contain a reservoir that stores large amounts of water. The central vacuole is a large, fluid-filled organelle that stores not only water but also enzymes, metabolic wastes, and other materials. The central vacuole, shown in Figure 4-22, forms as other smaller vacuoles fuse together. Central vacuoles can make up 90 percent of the plant cell’s volume and can push all of the other organelles into a thin layer against the plasma membrane. When water is plentiful, it fills a plant’s vacuoles. The cells expand and the plant stands upright. In a dry period, the vacuoles lose water, the cells shrink, and the plant wilts. Other Vacuoles Some vacuoles store toxic materials. The vacuoles of acacia trees, for example, store poisons that provide a defense against plant-eating ani- mals. Tobacco plant cells store the toxin nicotine in a storage vacuole. Other vacuoles store plant pigments, such as the colorful pigments found in rose petals. The central vacuole occupies up to 90 percent of the volume of some plant cells. The central vacuole stores water and helps keep plant tissue firm. FIGURE 4-22 Central vacuole Nucleus Chloroplast Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 89 PLASTIDS Plastids are another unique feature of plant cells. Plastids are organelles that, like mitochondria, are surrounded by a double mem- brane and contain their own DNA. There are several types of plastids, including chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts. Chloroplasts Chloroplasts use light energy to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. As Figure 4-23 shows, each chloroplast contains a system of flattened, membranous sacs called thylakoids. Thylakoids contain the green pigment chlorophyll, the main mole- cule that absorbs light and captures light energy for the cell. Chloroplasts can be found not only in plant cells but also in a wide variety of eukaryotic algae, such as seaweed. Chloroplast DNA is very similar to the DNA of certain photosyn- thetic bacteria. Plant cell chloroplasts can arise only by the divi- sion of preexisting chloroplasts. These facts may suggest that chloroplasts are descendants of ancient prokaryotic cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are also thought to be the descendants of ancient prokaryotic cells that were incorporated into plant cells through a process called endosymbiosis. Chromoplasts Chromoplasts are plastids that contain colorful pigments and that may or may not take part in photosynthesis. Carrot root cells, for example, contain chromoplasts filled with the orange pigment carotene. Chromoplasts in flower petal cells contain red, purple, yellow, or white pigments. Other Plastids Several other types of plastids share the general features of chloro- plasts but differ in content. For example, amyloplasts store starch. Chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and amyloplasts arise from a common precursor, called a proplastid. Thylakoid Inner membrane Outer membrane chloroplast from the Greek chloros, meaning “pale green,” and plastos, meaning “formed” Word Roots and Origins A chloroplast captures energy from sunlight and uses that energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and other carbohydrates. FIGURE 4-23 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 90 CHAPTER 4 COMPARING CELLS All cells share common features, such as a cell membrane, cyto- plasm, ribosomes, and genetic material. But there is a high level of diversity among cells, as shown in Figure 4-24. There are signifi- cant differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In addition, plant cells have features that are not found in animal cells. Prokaryotes Versus Eukaryotes Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in that prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotes have a region, called a nucleoid, in which their genetic material is concen- trated. However, prokaryotes lack an internal membrane system. Plant Cells Versus Animal Cells Three unique features distinguish plant cells from animal cells. One is the production of a cell wall by plant cells. Plant cells contain a large central vacuole. Third, plant cells contain a variety of plastids, which are not found in animal cells. Cell walls, central vacuoles, and plastids are unique features that are important to plant function. 1. Identify three unique features of plant cells. 2. List the differences between the plasma mem- brane, the primary cell wall, and the secondary cell wall. 3. Identify three functions of plastids. 4. Name three things that may be stored in vacuoles. 5. Describe the features that distinguish prokary- otes from eukaryotes and plant cells from animal cells. CRITICAL THINKINGHEALTH EDUCATION 3. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: Students should able to know about_______ 1. definition of health education 2. aims of health education 3. objectives of health education 4. principles of health education 5. scope of health education 6. planning of health education 7. steps in planning health education 8. levels of health education 9. doctors s responsibility 4. INTRODUCTION: Health education is a term frequently used by health care professional. its aims at individual and community health. Health education is the translation of what is known about health into desirable individual and community behaviour pattern by means of an education process. Definition: “A process aimed at encouraging people to want to be healthy , to know how to stay healthy, to do what they can individually and collectively to maintain health And seek help when needed”. OBJECTIVES - To inform people or disseminate scientific knowledge about prevention of disease and promotion of health - To motivate people to change their habits and lifestyle that are harmful to their health also motivate people to adopt habits and ways of living conducive to healthy living. - To guide the people who need help to adapt and maintain healthy practices and lifestyle by showing proper community resources. --- PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION - Credibility Of Message: It is the degree to which the message to be communicated is perceived as trustworthy by the receiver. - Creating interest among participants: It is a psychological principle that people are unlikely to listen to things that are not of their interest. If a health programme is based on the felt needs, people will participate in the programme willingly. - Motivating the participants: Motivation is like a petrol engine that drives the mental engine. It is the fundamental desire in every person to learn. Motivation is contagious; one motivated person may spread motivation throughout the group. 13. - Enhance comprehension of content: It means health education should be based on the level of understanding, education and literacy of people at whom the teaching is directed. Teaching should be within the mental capacity of the audience. - Ensure reinforcement: Repetition at intervals is necessary to promote learning. Without reinforcement and feedback, students can go back to the pre-awareness stage. - Encourage active participation: Health education should aim at encouraging people to work actively with health workers and others in identifying their own health problems and also in developing solutions. 14. - Learning by doing: Teaching is effective when individuals actively participate in health education. Learning becomes active and quicker if the individuals are made active physically as well as psychologically. - Known to unknown: The people in a community know something and the health educator enlarges this knowledge. If the health educator links new knowledge with the old knowledge, it can enhance learning. - Maintaining good human relations: Sharing of information, ideas and feelings happens most easily between people who have a good relationship. 15. - Setting an example: The health educators should set a good example in the topic they are dealing with as it fosters better understanding. - Regular feedback: Feedback is one of the key concepts of the system approach. The health educator can modify the elements of the system in light of the feedback from his audience. For effective communication, feedback is of paramount importance - Efficient leadership: Leaders are agents of change and they can be made use of in health education work. Psychologists have shown and established that we learn best from people we respect and regard. 16. The essential attributes of a leader are as follows - Understands the needs of the community. - Provides proper guidance. - Takes initiative. - Is receptive to the views and suggestions of people. - Identifies himself with the community. Is selfless, honest, impartial, considerate and sincere. - Is easily accessible to people. 17. SCOPE OF HEALTH EDUCATION 1. Nutrition 2. Hygiene 3. Family health 4. Disease prevention and cantrol 5. Psychological health 6. Prevention of accident 7. Use of health services 8. Human biology 19. - Nutrition: The aim of nutrition education is to guide people to choose optimum and balanced diets, remove prejudices and promote good dietary habits. nutrition education is a major intervention for the prevention of malnutrition, promotion of health and improving the quality of life. 20. - Hygiene: This has two aspects: personal and environmental. Personal: The aim of personal hygiene is to promote standards of personal cleanliness . Environmental: Has two aspects: Domestic and community. All environmental sanitation programmes should include health education 21. - Family health: The family is the first defence as well as the chief reliance for the well-being of its members. One of the main tasks of health education is to promote family self-reliance, especially regarding the family's responsibilities in child bearing, child rearing, self-care and in influencing their children to adopt a healthy lifestyle. 22. - Disease prevention and control: Drugs alone will not solve health problems. Without health education, a person may fall sick again and again from the same disease. Educating the people about the prevention and control of locally endemic diseases is the first of the eight essential activities in primary health care. 23. - Psychological health: Psychological health problem can occur everywhere. There is a tendency to an increase in the prevalence of psychological diseases when there is a change in society from agriculture to an industrial economy and when people move from the warm intimacy of a village. 24. - Prevention of accidents: Accidents are a feature of the complexity of modern life. Accidents can occur in home, road and place of work. The predominant factor in accidents is carelessness that can be tackled by health education. 25. - Use of health services: Many people, particularly in rural areas, do not know what health services are available and many more do not know. There is a communication gap between the public and state health administration in the form of feedback for further improvement of health services. One of the declared aims of health education is to inform people about the health services available in their community. 26. PLANNING FOR HEALTH EDUCATION planning: is the process of making thoughtful and systemic decision about what needs to be done , how it has to be done, by whom And with what sources. 27. Principles of planning health education 1) Focus on actual current needs and context of community: It is important that plans are made with the needs and context of the community in mind. Health education should try to understand what is currently happening in the community one works in. 2) Plan for basic needs and interest of the community: Consider the basic needs and interests of the community. If the local needs and interests are not kept under consideration, the plans may not be effective. 28. 3) Planning with actual beneficiaries of health education: Plan with the people involved in the implementation of an activity. If people are included in planning, they will be more likely to participate and the plan will be more likely to succeed. 4) Identify and use all relevant community resources: It is essential that the health educator identify all the relevant resources that are locally available which could be used for benefit of people receiving the health education. 29. 5) Follow principle of flexibility: Planning should be flexible, not rigid. One should be able to modify the plans when necessary. For example, you would have to change your priorities if a new problem needing an urgent response arose. 6) A realistic plan not hypothetical: The planned activity should be achievable and take into consideration the financial, personal resources available and time constraints. Planning must be realistic; do not plan unachievable activities. 30. Steps in planning health education Planning is a continuous process. It does not just happen at the start of project . Health education must be well planned to actually improve and promote individual, family and community health 31. - Needs assessment: Conducting needs assessment is the first and probably the most important step in any successful planning process. assessment is the process of identifying and understanding the health problems of the community and their possible causes. - Identify priorities: After identifying the needs and resources of the community, the next is to identify their priorities because each community may have several problems but the urgent have to be given top priority in health education. For example: goitre 32. - Set the goals and objectives: In planning the process of health education, setting goals and objectives is the third and most essential step because these goals and objectives serve as consciously thought baseline parameters to be achieved during health education. - Develop strategies: Prior to the implementation of the health education intervention one must plan, develop and evaluate the several alternative strategies to achieve the set goals and objectives of health education because each problem and target community is quite unique. 33. - Implementation: This is the core phase of the health education process which includes carrying out the planned strategies so that the set goals and objectives of health education may be achieved. - Monitor and evaluation: This is the final step of the planning process of health education where continuous monitoring as well as end evaluation is carried out to ensure the degree to which stated goals and objectives have been achieved. 34. LEVELS/APPROACH OF HEALTH EDUCATION 35. INDIVIDUAL LEVEL - Individual Approach: The health education must first create an atmosphere of friendship and allow the individual to talk as much as possible. In this individual teaching we can discuss, argue and persuade the individual to change his behaviour. But by this we can reach to a small population and who come in contact with us. Methods of individual health education 1) Home visit 2) Personal contact/ counselling 3) Personnel letters 36. 1) Home visit: A home visit is one of the best approaches for individual health education because it can become one of the best opportunities for health education with individuals and their families. Home visits are important to understand the real background of families, their living conditions and the environment in which they live. 37. 2) Personal contact/counseling : Personal contacts or counselling (one-to-one communication) is a helping process where one person explicitly and purposefully gives his or her time to assist people explore their situations and act on a solution. After this the counsellor needs to work together with the person to find solutions that are appropriate to their situation. 38. 3) personal letters: Personal letters may also be used for individual health education, where health educators may get an opportunity to dispatch letters or printed education material to the people in a target community. 39. GROUP LEVEL Group health education may be useful way to deliver health education massages in efficient manner. A well organized group permits sharing of experiences and skills so that people are able to learn from each other. 40. Methods of group discussion 1)Lecture method: (Chalk & Talk ) A lecture may be defined as carefully prepared oral presentation of facts organized thoughts and ideas by a qualified person. The group should not be more than 30 and talk should not exceed 15-20 minutes. By using suitable audiovisual aids. 2) Group discussion: A group is an aggregation of people interacting in a face to face situation. It is a very effective method of health communication. 41. 3) Demonstration: A demonstration is a carefully prepared presentation to show how to perform a skill. This procedure is carried out step by step before an audience. 4) Panel discussion: In a panel discussion 4-8 qualified persons talk about the topic. Sit and discuss a given topic in front of a large group/audience. The chairman opens the meeting. Panel comprises of a chair person and 4-8 speakers. After the main aspect of the subject are explored, the audience is invited to take part. 42. 5) Symposium: It is a series of speeches on a selected subject. Each expert person present it briefly and at the end of session the chair person make a comprehensive summary. Audience are allowed to raise question. 6) Workshops : It consists of series of meetings usually 4 or more with emphasis on an individual work, within the group and with the help of consultants and response personnel. 7) Role play: This is a brief acting out of an actual situation for the benefit of the audience for better understanding. 43. 8) Conference and seminars: This programmes are usually held on a regional, state/national level. Where several experts from different disciplines meet to deliberate on a particular theme, to appraise others of latest knowledge and research in a particular field. 9) Open forum: It refers to the public meeting which are held for various purposes in the community, for example: gram sabha 44. COMMUNITY LEVEL It is meant for a defined community and is not only to create awareness but also to help people understand their health problems and needs, find alternatives solutions to their problems and needs , implement them, evaluate and get feedback and accordingly do the needful. For health education at the community level, it is better to approach local leaders who are influential and who have the people’s confidence. These may include local officers such as gramsevak, panchayat sarpanch ,police officer or block development officer etc . 45. HOSPITAL LEVEL 1) Health Education in OPD/Outdoor: The patient and his attendants have to spend a lot of time in the outpatient department for health check-up, treatment, registration, diagnosis, admission procedure etc. This period can be utilised for health education. For this, the following means/devices can be used: - Exhibiting pictures, posters, charts, bulletin board and models in the waiting hall. - Arranging group discussion, slide show, or documentary film in a proper place and on a proper topic. - Giving health education on a personal level in the consulting room. This mainly includes nutrition clinic, family planning clinic, psychiatric clinic etc. 46. - Distributing pamphlets. - Arranging street plays or nukkad naatak in the outpatient department or its neighbourhood. 47. 2) Health Education in wards/ IPD: While taking care of the patients the indoor patients, doctors s have the opportunities to educate them. This period can be fully utilised to give health education to the patients. For this the following methods can be effective: - Conversation with the patient and motivating him for change in his behaviour. - Imparting health education by arranging live demonstration for nutrition, treatment, diagnosis etc. - Providing clinical or bedside teaching. - Providing incidental teaching to patient and his attendants. 48. - Presenting examples. To describe the gains of health education in an individual suffering from the same health education in an individual suffering from the same disease and arranging a meeting between the patient and the cured old patients. [t comes from the GREEK name "Epilepsia" which means "taking hold of or seizing". - It is a disorder characterized by: recurrent seizures. SEIZURES R ectment transient attacks of: R epresent: R esult from: ASSOCIATED WITH: somatic, psychic, or, autonomic clinical featmes. clinical features of abnormally hyperexcitable cortical neurons. paroxvsmal and excessive electrical neuronal discharges. EEG changes & may be disturbance of consciousness. same causes of convulsions 1. Idiopathic epile~ • It is the commonest cause. no cause can be detected ( 65 % ) • It may be associated with positive family history in some cases. • It starts in the l st & 2nd decades in the form of: -- Grand ma! epilepsy. Petit mal epilepsy. Myoclonic epilepsy. Atonic seizures. 2. Secondary epilepsy A. Local causes in the brain: l. Congenital: 2. Traumatic: cerebral palsy. a cause can be detected cerebral contusion or laceration. 3. Inflammatory: 4. Neoplastic: 5. Degenerative: 6. Vascular: encephalitis, brain tumours. mening1t1s, presenile dementia. brain abscess. stroke (especially hemon-hagic), hypertensive encephalopathy. B. General causes with secondary effects on the brain: I. Toxic: 2. Iatrogenic: 3. Metabolic: 4. Endocrinal: 5. Organ failure: 6. Heart disease: 7. Nutritional: - Alcohol, cocaine, lead. - Lidocaine, INH. - j glucose & ! glucose. - Hypoparathyroidism. - Hepatic failme. - Adam's Stoke's attacks. - Pellagra. - Botulism, tetanus. - Ambilhar, Amphetamine, Aminophylline. - j Ca & ! Ca. - Hype1thyroid crisis. - Renal failure. - Fallot's tetralogy. - j Na & ! Na. - Vitamin B6 deficiency. 8. Physical: 9. HYSTERICAL. - High fevers. - Heat stroke. 136 137 CLINICAL PICTURE 1. GENERALISED SEIZURES " Excessive electrical discharges from cortical neurons in BOTH hemispheres simultaneously " I. II. 1. Grand Mal Epile~: 1. Pre-ictal stage "attacks of tonic-clonic convulsions " (aura) It is a warning sign of a coming attack. It may be: • Somatic: • Psychic: • Autonomic: 2. Ictal stage Myoclonus, Hallucinations. Tachycardia, (seizure) Sudden loss of consciousness: Parasthesias. Sweating. for seconds to minutes. -- Tonic phase (few seconds) o The UL & LL: o o o o The HEAD: The JAWS: CYANOSIS: are extended. is retracted to one side & the eye balls rolled up. are firmly clenched, with biting of the TONGUE. due to impaired respiration. There may be incontinence of urine. Clonic phase (few minutes) o The UL & LL: o The HEAD: 3. Post-ictal stage - It may be: • Somatic: • Psychic: • Autonomic: Drug of choice: contract & relax repeatedly & rapidly. jerks forcibly. (sequelae) Todd's paralysis(< 24 hours, due to neuronal exhaustion). Confusion. Vomiting. Carbamazepine (Tegretol) or Phenytoin (Epanutin) Petit Mal Epilepsy: "attacks of loss of consciousness " " Absence " It starts in childhood & improves at puberty & usually disappears at the age of 20. 2. It is NOT PRECEEDED by aura & NOT FOLLOWED by sequelae. 3. It is usually PRECIPITATED by: hyperventilation 4. It is characterized by: or photic stimulation. sudden loss of consciousness of short duration (few seconds). 5. It may be associated with: • High frequency ( 50 attacks / day). • Falling to the ground without warning. • Jerky movements of the head & UL Drug of choice: (myoclonic petit mal). Valproate (Depakine) or Succinimide (Zarontin) 137 138 Ill. M oclonic Seizures: "attacks of involuntary clonic movements " - It is characterized by: sudden, jerky, shock-like INVOLUNTARY muscle contraction. • The jerks are bilateral contractions, mainly of the shoulders and arms. • However, some patients repmtjerking in the lower limbs, trunk, or head. - It may be of 2 types: - Occurs singly • Simple: • As a pait of: I Drug of choice: IV. Atonic seizures: (no loss of consciousness). - Grand mal epilepsy (aura). - Petit mal epilepsy. Valproate (Depakine) or Clonazepam (Rivotril) I - Transient attacks of brief loss of postural tone, often resulting in falls and injuries. 2. PARTIAL SEIZURES "Excessive electrical discharges from cmtical neurons in a ce1tain area in ONE hemisphere" A. Simple seizures: " No disturbance in consciousness " - The CP depends on the site of the hyperexcitable neurones in the cerebral cortex, whether in: "Motor area or Senso,y areas". 1. Motor fits: • Focal fits: • Motor jacksonian fits: 2. General Sensory fits: • Focal fits: • Sensory jacksonian fits: 3. Special Senso1y fits: • Visual hallucinations: • Auditory hallucinations: • Olfactory hallucinations: B. Complex seizures: - SITE: movement of part of a limb or the whole limb. movement of one side of the body (see before). parasthesia of part of a limb or the whole limb. parasthesia of one side of the body (see before). irritation of the visual sensory area. irritation of the auditory sensory area. initation of the uncus. " disturbance in consciousness " The hyperexcitable neurons are in the Temporal lobe "Temporal lobe epilepsy". - DURATION: The seizure lasts few seconds to few minutes. - The seizure starts with A ura, followed by A bsence, Automatism, Amnesia: 1. 2. 3. 4. A ura: A bsence: Automatism: A mnesia: Olfactory hallucinations, Deja-vu phenomenon, Sensation of fear. Absent patient with staring eyes (with no response to conversation). Involuntary Purposeless acts: motor ( eg, lip smacking, chewing) or verbal. No recalling of the seizure. 138 139 3. PARTIAL SEIZURES ~ GENERALISED SEIZURES " Partial seizures may spread to involve the whole brain .- secondarily generalised seizures " . HY-sterical epilepsY • Usually: • The cause: • Incidence: young neurotic Sj2 . psychological & there is no organic lesion. usually occurs in the presence of people. • It is associated with: • EEG: • It is not associated with: normal. • Missed ttt. • Menses. • Alkalosis. anxiety, palpitaion & hyperventilation. tongue biting or incontinence of urine. • Alcohol use & Drug abuse ( e.g. cocaine ). • S timulation by photons & Hyperventilation. • S leep deprivation & Stress & sudden withdrawal of antiepileptic drngs. INVESTIGATIONS 1. EEG: • It is the most specific test for epilepsy because it records the electrical activity of the brain. • It shows specific pattern: 2. LOCAL INVESTIGATIONS: "Epilepsy waves". "CT & MRI of the brain" • To identify or exclude a LOCAL CAUSE of seizures in the brain. 3. GENERAL INVESTIGATIONS: "Laboratory investigations" • To search for a GENERAL CAUSE of seizures, e.g. blood glucose. 139 140 TREATMENT A. General Measures: 1. 2. Moderation of the patient's physical activity. A void the precipitating factors ( Alcohol, hyperventilation, photic stimulation ...... ). 3. A ketogenic diet is encouraged because it will induce acidosis: - Acidosis is beneficial as it raises the threshold of stimulation of the brain cells. B. Specific Treatment: 2. 1. Treatment of the cause in secondary epilepsy. Anti-epileptic drugs: a) Always sta1t with one drug, then add another drug if there is no response. b) Always stop the drugs ONLY if: • The patient stays free of symptoms for at least 2 years. • The patient has a normal EEG. 3. Side effects of Anti-epileptic drugs: I . Skin rash. 2. 3. Bone marrow depression. Ataxia. Drug 1. Barbiturates (Pbenonobarbitone) 2. Hydantoin (Epanutin) 3. Carbamazepine 4. Clonazepam 5. Valproate 6. Succinamide ANTI-EPILEPTIC DRUGS NEW ANTI-EPILEPTIC DRUGS - These drugs are new dtugs that may be used in resistant seizures. 1. Lamotrigine: 200 - 400 mg/ day. 2. Felbamate: 3. Gabapentin: 400- 800 mg/ day. 600 - 1200 mg/ day. \ " General rules for use ": Dose 100-600 mg I day 100-600 mg / day 200-600 mg I day 2-6 mg I day 500-1500 mg I day 500-1000 mg / day Best indicated - Broad spectrum. - Not for petit mal. - Grand mal. - Motor Jacksonian fits. - Grand mal. - Motor Jacksonian fits. - Complex seizures. - Not for petit ma!. - Myoclonic. - Grand mat. - Broad spectrum. - Petit mat. 140 141 STATUS EPILEPTICUS DEFINITION - A medical emergency: 1. Repeated attacks of generalized convulsions, with lack of recove,y of consciousness, 2. Persistent attack of seizure lasting for at least 30 minutes. OR, - If the convulsions are not stopped rapidly, coma deepens & death may occur due to: heart failure or respiratory failure or brain damage or hyperpyrexia. - The most common causes are: sudden withdrawal of anti-epileptic drugs & stroke. TREATMENT A. General Measures: l. Take care of: " ABC " • Place the patient on the ground, to guard against falling from bed. • Mouth gag & 02 inhalation ( endo-tracheal intubation may be needed). • Record the vital signs regularly. 2. Take a sample of: - Venous blood: for the level of: - A.tierial blood: for the level of: 3. a nti-epileptic drugs, a lcohol. pH, p0 2, pC02, HC0 3. Give cerebral dehydrating measures: e.g. Frusemide, cone. Mannitol, Dexamethazone. B. Specific Treatment: - Phenytoin with diazepam (or clonazepam) immediately: 1. Phenytoin: 2. Diazepam: Clonazepam: seizures recur: 15 mg I Kg slow infusion. 5 mg slowly IV, to be repeated after 5 minutes if seizures recur: maximum dose: 20 mg. OR: 2 mg slowly IV, to be repeated after 5 minutes if maximum dose: 6 mg. - If seizures persist after 20 min. of Phenytoin & diazepam: 3. PHENOBARBITONE: - In resistant cases: 200 mg infusion. 4. GENERAL ANAESTHESIA: may be used.Analysis is a method of organizing, sorting, and scrutinizing data in such a way that a research question can be answered or meaningful inferences can be drawn. 4 2. Bibliography is a list of all the sources used in the process of researching. 3. Concept refers to a mental idea of a phenomenon. These are words or terms that symbolize some aspects of reality. e. g. love, pain. 4. Conclusion provides a summary of the research. 5. Data is an information that can be words or numbers. 6. Data Gathering Tools refer to the devices/ instruments used to collect data such as questionnaire or computer- assisted interviewing system. 7. Data Presentation involves the use of a variety of different graphical techniques. 8. Descriptive study is a research design that describes “what is”( e.g. a survey). 9. In-Text Citation is the brief form of the reference included in the body of one’s work. 10. Limitations are restrictions in a study that may decrease the credibility and generalizability of the research findings. 11. Literature review is a critical summary or research on a topic of interest, generally prepared to put a research problem in context or to identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify a new investigation. 12. Plagiarism is the unethical practice of using words or ideas of another author/researcher without proper acknowledgement. 13. Quantitative Research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. 14. Questionnaire is a set of questions used to gather information in a survey. 15. Research Topic is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when conducting a research. 16. Respondents are those persons who have been invited to participate in a particular study and have actually taken part in the study. 17. Research Question is the question around which a researcher centers his/ her research. 18. Sample is a part or subset of population selected to participate in the research study. 19. Socio Demographic Profile includes age, sex, education, migration, background and ethnicity, religious affiliation, marital status, household, employment, and income. 20.Variables are attributes or characteristics that can have more than one value, such as height or weight. These are qualities or quantities, properties or characteristics of people, things, or situations that change or vary