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Total solar eclipse
Quiz by Cyndie Menard
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Total Solar Eclipse 2024Total Solar Eclipse- 04/08/24 Lesson 1: Why is the interior of the Earth hot? The interior of Earth is very hot (the temperature of the core reaches more than 5,000 degrees Celsius) for two main reasons: . The heat from when the planet formed, . The heat from the decay of radioactive elements. The Earth was formed by the process of accretion. After the creation of our solar system, meteorites gravitationally attracted each other and formed bigger objects, which attracted bigger masses, until our planets reach their current size. This process accumulated a lot of heat; when two objects collide, heat is generated. That is why your hands will get hot when you clap them for too long, or a nail gets very hot when you hammer it for a long time. This heat has not dissipated totally and represents about 10% of the total heat inside the Earth. The main source of heat is the decay of radioactive elements. Radioactive decay is a natural process; unstable elements like 238U (Uranium) or 40K (Potassium) stabilize with time and produce what we call daughter products: 206P (Lead) for Uranium and 40Ar (Argon) for Potassium. This process produces heat, which represents about 90% of the total heat inside the Earth. Lesson 2: How Magma Forms Magma is a molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth. This mixture is usually made up the of four parts: hot liquid base, called a melt; minerals crystallized by the melt; solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines; and dissolved gases. When magma is ejected by a volcano or other vent, the material is called lava. Magma that has cooled into a solid is Based on the provided sources, here is a comprehensive extraction of the information regarding the water cycle, energy transfer, and Earth's wind systems, organized into key points: The Water Cycle and Its Reservoirs • Definition: The water cycle is the continuous movement of water among various reservoirs on Earth. • Water Reservoirs: These are storage locations for water and include: ◦ Oceans, seas, and lakes. ◦ Rivers, glaciers, soil, and rocks. ◦ The atmosphere and living organisms. • Total Volume: The total amount of water on Earth does not change, even when it changes state, because it is constantly being replaced or recycled through the cycle. Main Processes and Energy Transfer The movement of water through the cycle is driven by energy (thermal energy from the Sun) and force (gravity and wind). • Energy Gain (Absorption): ◦ Melting: Water changes from a solid state (ice) to a liquid state and gains energy. ◦ Evaporation: Liquid water changes into a gas state (water vapor) by gaining thermal energy. ◦ Transpiration: A specialized type of evaporation occurring in plants where water vapor is released through tiny holes in leaves called stomata. Approximately 10% of water vapor in the air comes from transpiration. • Energy Loss (Release): ◦ Condensation: Water vapor (gas) cools down and changes back into liquid water, releasing energy. ◦ Freezing: Liquid water changes into a solid state (ice) and loses energy. • Other Key Steps: ◦ Precipitation: Water falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail (snow pellets). ◦ Runoff: Water flows over Earth's surface into streams, rivers, and eventually larger bodies of water like oceans. ◦ Collection: Rainwater is collected in different water bodies to start the cycle again. Forces Driving Water Movement • Gravity: The main force that pulls water downward. It is responsible for: ◦ Bringing precipitation (rain and snow) from clouds to the surface. ◦ Moving ice in glaciers from higher to lower elevations. ◦ Causing liquid water to flow downhill into rivers and seas. ◦ Leakage: Pulling liquid water down into the ground to reach groundwater reservoirs. • Wind: Another force that affects water movement and transports water to different locations on Earth. Atmospheric Processes • Cloud Formation: Water vapor attaches to particles such as dust or smoke in the air and condenses into tiny droplets. When millions of these droplets join, they become heavy and fall as rain. • Convection: The transfer of heat in liquids and gases. ◦ Warm air/liquid: Becomes less dense, lighter, and rises upward. ◦ Cold air/liquid: Is more dense, heavier, and moves downward to replace the warm fluid. ◦ This process leads to convection currents, which help determine regional climates and drive wind and ocean currents. Solar Radiation and Climate The amount of solar energy reaching Earth differs from place to place, which affects the weather: • Hottest Regions (Equator): Sun rays fall perpendicular (vertical). Heat is concentrated on a small area, making the weather hot. • Moderate Regions: Sun rays fall semi-inclined. Heat is distributed over a larger area, making the weather warm. • Coolest Regions (Poles): Sun rays fall very slanted (inclined). Heat is spread over a very large area, making the weather very cold. Earth's Wind System • Wind Formation: Wind is generated when warm air (heated by the Sun) rises and is replaced by cooler air flowing from nearby areas. • Factors Affecting Wind: The amount of solar radiation and the rotation of Earth determine global wind directions. • Global Wind Cycle: Unequal heating between the equator and the poles generates a constant wind system. Warm air rises at the equator and moves toward the poles, while cold air from the poles moves toward the equator. • Importance: If there were no wind, the equator would become extremely hot, the poles would freeze solid, and many ecosystems would disappear. Practical Examples • Turkey’s Salt Lake: High evaporation in the summer can turn this large lake into a small puddle or dry it up completely. It is a critical site for flamingos, which migrate there to breed and feed on algae in the shallow, warm water.Science Exam Parts of the Atom: The atom consists of a nucleus at its center, containing protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral), while electrons (negatively charged) orbit in electron shells around the nucleus. Atomic Number: The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in its nucleus. It defines the element and determines its place on the periodic table. Properties of Metals: Metals have properties like conductivity, malleability (can be flattened into sheets), and ductility (can be drawn into wires). Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: Elements consist of only one type of atom. Compounds are made of two or more different elements chemically bonded. Mixtures are combinations of substances that are physically mixed but not chemically bonded. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures: Homogeneous mixtures have a uniform composition (e.g., saltwater), while heterogeneous mixtures have different phases (e.g., oil and water). Changes of State: Changes like melting, evaporation, and condensation are examples of physical changes of state. Chemical and Physical Properties: Chemical properties describe how a substance can change to form a new substance, while physical properties are characteristics like color, texture, and state (solid, liquid, gas). Physical and Chemical Change: A physical change involves the appearance or state of matter, but the substance remains the same. A chemical change involves the formation of new substances. Chemical Equations: Chemical reactions can be represented with chemical equations that show reactants (what you start with) and products (what is formed). Chemical Formulas: Chemical formulas represent the composition of compounds. For example, NaHCO3 is sodium bicarbonate, consisting of one sodium (Na), one hydrogen (H), one carbon (C), and three oxygen (O) atoms. Energy: Types of Energy: Energy can be kinetic (related to motion), potential (stored energy), thermal (heat energy), electrical, chemical, and more. Units of Energy: Common units of energy include joules (J) and calories (cal). Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed from one form to another. Energy Transfer and Transformation: Energy moves from one object to another, changing forms along the way. Useful and Waste Energy: Useful energy is what can be harnessed and used for a specific purpose. Waste energy is energy that is not used and is often lost. Energy Flow Diagrams: These diagrams show how energy is transferred or transformed within a system. Energy Efficiency: Efficiency is a measure of how much useful energy is obtained from a system. It can be calculated using the equation: Efficiency = (Useful Energy Output / Total Energy Input) x 100%. Fossil Fuels and Renewable Energy: Fossil fuels, like coal, oil, and natural gas, are non-renewable sources of energy. Renewable energy sources include solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. Variables: Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment. Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured or observed and is affected by changes in the independent variable. Controlled Variables: Factors that are kept constant to ensure a fair and accurate experiment.Key Word Definition
Aid Assistance in the form of grants or loans at below market rates. For example, the UK provided aid to Nepal after the 2015 earthquake to help with reconstruction efforts.
Barriers to Trade Government constraints on the flow of international goods and services, such as tariffs and quotas. For example, the European Union imposes tariffs on certain agricultural products to protect its farmers.
BRICS An acronym for an association of five major emerging nations: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. For example, BRICS nations often meet to discuss economic cooperation and development strategies.
Demographic Aging The rise in the median age of a population. For example, Japan is experiencing demographic aging, with a significant increase in the elderly population.
Economic Core Region The most highly developed region(s) in a country. For example, London is considered an economic core region in the UK due to its high level of development and economic activity.
GNP (Gross National Product) GDP plus overseas earnings, also known as GNI (Gross National Income). For example, the GNP of the United States includes the value of goods and services produced domestically and the income earned by its citizens abroad.
HIC (Higher Income Country) A country with a high level of income and development. For example, Germany is classified as a higher income country due to its high GDP per capita and advanced infrastructure.
NEE (Newly Emerging Economy) A country that is experiencing rapid economic growth and industrialisation. For example, China is an example of a newly emerging economy, having rapidly industrialised and grown economically over the past few decades.
LIC (Lower Income Country) A country with a low level of income and development. For example, Malawi is considered a lower income country, with a low GDP per capita and limited access to healthcare and education.
GDHI (Gross Disposable Household Income) The amount of money that households have available for spending and saving after taxes and social contributions. For example, in the UK, the GDHI varies significantly between regions, with London having one of the highest levels.
Gini Coefficient A measure of income inequality within a population, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 100 (perfect inequality). For example, South Africa has a high Gini coefficient, indicating significant income inequality within the country.
Trade Unions Organisations that promote trade between member countries, such as the East African Community (EAC). For example, the East African Community (EAC) works to promote economic integration and trade among its member states.
Fair Trade A movement aimed at helping producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions and promote sustainability. For example, Fairtrade coffee ensures that farmers receive a fair price for their product and work under safe conditions.
FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) Investment made by a company or individual in one country in business interests in another country. For example, Toyota's investment in manufacturing plants in the UK is an example of foreign direct investment.
Debt Relief The partial or total remission of debts, especially those owed by developing countries to external creditors. For example, the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative provides debt relief to eligible countries to help them achieve sustainable development.
International Aid Voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another, often in the form of financial assistance, goods, or services. For example, the UK provides international aid to various countries through its Department for International Development (DFID).
Top-Down Development Large-scale development projects led by national governments or international organisations. For example, the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China is an example of a top-down development project.
Bottom-Up Development Small-scale development projects led by local communities or NGOs, focusing on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable. For example, WaterAid's installation of hand pumps in rural villages in Africa is an example of a bottom-up development project.
Urbanisation The increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas. For example, rapid urbanisation in India has led to the growth of megacities like Mumbai and Delhi.
Geopolitics The study of the effects of geography (human and physical) on international politics and relations. For example, the geopolitics of the Arctic region involves disputes over territorial claims and access to natural resources.
Quality of Life The general well-being of individuals and societies, outlining negative and positive features of life. For example, Scandinavian countries are often ranked high in quality of life due to their strong social welfare systems and high levels of happiness.
Poverty Cycle A set of factors or events by which poverty, once started, is likely to continue unless there is outside intervention. For example, lack of education and healthcare can trap families in a poverty cycle, making it difficult for future generations to improve their living standards.
Sustainable Development Economic development that is conducted without depletion of natural resources. For example, the use of renewable energy sources like wind and solar power is a key aspect of sustainable development.
Humanitarian Aid Material or logistical assistance provided for humanitarian purposes, typically in response to crises including natural disasters and man-made disaster. For example, humanitarian aid was provided to Haiti after the devastating earthquake in 2010 to help with immediate relief efforts.
Economic Growth An increase in the production of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. For example, China's economic growth over the past few decades has lifted millions of people out of poverty.
Social Indicators Measures that describe the well-being of individuals or communities, such as health, education, and income. For example, life expectancy and literacy rates are common social indicators used to assess development.
Environmental Sustainability Responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality. For example, practices like recycling and conservation of natural habitats contribute to environmental sustainability.
Infrastructure The basic physical and organisational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society or enterprise. For example, good infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and schools, is essential for economic development.
Globalisation The process by which businesses or other organisations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale. For example, the globalisation of technology companies like Apple and Google has led to their products being available worldwide.
Microfinance Financial services provided to low-income individuals or groups who are typically excluded from traditional banking. For example, microfinance institutions like Grameen Bank provide small loans to entrepreneurs in developing countries to help them start or expand their businesses.
Riferimenti normativi per il settore residenziale: Art 81: Accesso alla rete viaria—>> il cancello deve essere arretrato di almeno 4,5m dal filo esterno del marciapiede Art 82: Passo carrabile—>> larghezza non inferiore a 4,5m e non superiore a 6,5m Art 83:Pendenza Rampa —>> max 16% Art 97: Superficie minima degli ambienti - cucina —>> min 5mq - studio—>> min 7mq - soggiorno—>> min 14 mq - soggiorno spazi di cottura—>> 17 -camera (1posto letto)—>> 8mq - camera (2posti letto)—>> 12mq Superficie alloggio totale —>> non inferiore a 28 mq Art 95: Altezze minime- cucina, soggiorno, camera e studio—>> min 2,70m -locali accessori—>> min 2,40 m (bagno, lavanderie) - locali di servizio—>> min 2,10m (disimpegni, riposti.) - soppalchi—>> min 2,10m - parapetti—>> non inf. a 1,1m (10 cm cordolo) (92) Art 86: Distanze - negli edifici di nuova costruzione la distanza degli edifici dal confine con proprietà di terzi — nei NAF—>> non inf. a 3 m — altri ambiti —>> non inf. a 5m Art 89: Scale (R.E. ) —alzate—>> max 12 consecutive — a chiocciola—>> consentite solo all’interno di un’unità abit. — illuminazione—>> se collegano più di due piani devono . essere areati con lucernario. Dim: 0,3 mq . per ogni piano servito (R.I.: 0,4 mq x piano) — areazione —>> non ci può essere areazione verso i vani scala . ( Lo dice anche il regolamento d’igiene ) (R.I) —>> superficie non inferiore a 1mq per piano servi. — larghezza (R.I.) —>> deve garantire la possibilità di soccorso e . trasporto di persone Art 88: Locali sotterranei —>> non possono MAI essere adibiti ad abitazione Locali seminterrati—>> possono ma devono rispettare determinati . requisiti - l’altezza media deve essere > di 2,7m Art 91: Copertura—>> istallazione di apparati tecnici non deve essere visibile . dalle pubbliche vie Art 98: Bagni —>> ambiente contenente il vaso deve essere disimpegnato . dalla cucina (R.I: disimpegnato dai locali abitabili, esclusione Secondo bagno se è a servizio esclusivo di una camera) (R.I)—>> deve essere dotato di vaso, lavabo, bidet doccia o vasca —>> il lavabo può essere ubicato nell’antibagno Art 100: Areazione —>> riscontro d’aria deve essere garantito su aperture . perpendicolari o contrapposte.(non inf. a 1\10) —>> appartamenti inf. a 60mq possono essere . monoaffaccio ( ma non esposti a nord) Art 125: Raccolta rifiuti (R.E)—>> non meno di 0,18mq per ogni abitante . virtuale —>> non meno di 5 mq —>> altezza minima 2,4m (R.I: 2 m) —>> deve avere un punto di allacciamento d’acqua Regolamento d’igiene —>> dimensione tale da poter contenere 4,5l Di rifiuti per abitante.( in ogni caso > di 2mq) —>> scarichi sifonati dall’acqua di lavaggio —>> accorgimenti che assicurino un’adeguata Difesa antimurina e antinsetti Norma UNI 10750: superficie commerciale (ciò che compriamo) , cioè la somma delle superfici coperte—>> 100% delle superfici calpestatili —>>100% delle superfici su cui poggiano . Le pareti divisorie interne non portanti —>> 50% delle pareti portanti interne perimetrali —>> 25% delle aree non abitabili Superfici scoperte—>> 25% dei balconi e delle terrazze scoperte —>> 35% dei balconi e dei terrazzi coperti (3 lati) —>> 35% dei pati e dei porticati —>> 60% delle verande —>> 15% dei giardini di appartamento —>> 10% dei giardini di ville e villini (Se un muro è al confine con un altro appartamento lo considero dalla mezzeria, se confina con uno spazio comune idem, lo considero tutto invece se da sull’esterno ) Regolamento d’igiene (su esso prevale il Re) : norme che discipilinano degli aspetti della vita quotidiana al fine di tutelare la salute dei fruitori Si occupa di : Rumori , odori , fumi, vapori. Scarichi nel sottosuolo Pulizia e decoro Malattie infettive Igenicità degli ambienti Pareti trasparenti (tenendo conto di telai e infissi)—>> deve avere un area pari a 1\8 (nazionale), 1\10 (Milano ) della superficie di pavimento Profondità di pavimento—>> non deve superare i 2,5m dalla finestra Bagno cieco solo se la superficie lorda di pavimento è inferiore ai 70mq e se è presente una sola camera da letto , oppure se è un secondo bagno (altrimenti finestra > 0,5 apribile). Superficie illuminante—>> superficie totale dell’apertura meno - superficie finale non utile (C): 60 cm - superficie superiore non utile (A) A= va considerato per intero se non ci sono aggetti o se questi sono inferiori a 150 cm. Al contrario ne considero solo un terzo. Es: con aggetto, b+ 1\3a . Se il rapporto illuminante è rispettato la profondità del locale non può essere più di 2,5 volte l’altezza del voltino . Se non è rispettato (inferiore a 1\8) allora deve essere 3,5 volte Alloggi devono essere dotati— per 1\2 perone—>> 1 spazio cottura,1 servizio igienico , 1 ripostiglio — per 3\4 persone—>> 1 cucina indipendente, 1 servizio igienico , 1 ripostiglio — per 4\5 persone —>> 1 cucina indipendente, 2 servizi igienici, 1 ripostiglio (per il secondo servizio è richiesta una superficie minima di 2mq e un lato minimo di 1,2m) Dotazione dei servizi: Cucina—>> pavimenti e pareti con superficie Di materiale impermeabile, liscio, lavabile,resist. —>> soffitto materiale traspirante —>> cappa collegata a ogni punto di cottura (Vedi bagno su) Prevenzione incendi : definisce —dimensionamenti—accessi all’area (locali di intrattenimento e di pubblico Spettacolo —>> larghezza 3,5 —>> h libera 4m —>> raggio di svolta 13m —>> pendenza non sup al 10% —>> resist al carico almeno 20t —profondità locali —>> i locali al chiuso non possono Essere ubicati oltre il secondo piano Interrato (non oltre i 10m) . Questi se Sono tra i 7,5 e i 10 m devono essere Protetti da un’impianto sprinkler e Essere dotati di uscite sicure. — carichi d’incendio — comunicazione (locali di intrattenimento e di pubb. Spettacolo —>> locali possono comunicare con altre Attività purché dotate di filtri a prova di Fumo e di porte REI (ameno 30) (queste Non vanno cont nel comp. delle vie d’uscit) — compartimentazioni — autorimesse — comportamento al fuocoProcesso costruttivo : modalità esecutive utilizzate per la realizzazione di ogni parte costitutiva dell’edificio. La scelta deve essere riferita ad aspetti contingentati come: la cultura tecnologica locale, gli obbiettivi economici, capacità di organizzazione nel lavoro del cantiere, sistemi di approvvigionamento dei materiali. Fasi del processo costruttivo: Programmazione (rilevamento esigenze, scelta dell’obbiettivo, studio o progetto di fattibilità , definizione dell’intervento edilizio) Progettazione (formato da metaprogetto, progetto preliminare, progetto definitivo, progetto esecutivo) Realizzazione (affidamento dell’appalto, stipula del contratto, nomina del direttore dei lavori, gestione e controllo delle fasi esecutive, collaudo dell’opera) Gestione e dismissione ( esercizio impianti tecnici, manutenzione, recupero, demolizione) Gli attori di questo processo sono degli Enti ( Pianificatori, normatori, di Attuazione) In passato il processo costruttivo si basava sul sistema costruttivo tradizionale (cioè nella realizzazione delle murature portanti) Da trent’anni a questa parte è cambiato: tecnologie più evolute, razionalizzazione del cantiere. Anche l’introduzione del cls armato ha cambiato radicalmente: necessità di separare in modo più netto le attività destinate alla realizzazione di fondazioni, strutture portanti e opere di completamento. Così anche dal maggiore sviluppo delle macchine da cantiere, di molteplici attrezzature, di materiali innovativi. Tipologie di sistemi costruttivi: Tradizionale : realizzazione di ogni elemento direttamente in cantiere (basso contenuto tecnologico, alto contenuto di lavoro) Razionalizzato o ibrido : vantaggio di efficenza costruttiva e quindi economico , ha strutture portanti di calcestruzzo armato ma permette l’uso anche di elementi caratteristici di altri sistemi costruttivi ) Industrializzato o a pie d’opera : elementi strutturali realizzati direttamente in cantiere utilizzando diverse tipologie di casserature; processo produttivo basato su 24h in cui viene fatto tutto ( dalla posata delle casserature al compattamento del getto) Queste casserature possono essere di diverso tipo: Tunnel, usato per gli interventi di grandi dimensioni (crea una canna pari a un piano dell’edificio) , Banches et Tables , ampiamente utilizzata il vantaggio è la velocità , Sistema Grigliato tipo Peri Gridflex crea un piano di sicurezza per gli operatori permette di creare dei solai con 33 cm di spessore, Sistema Alumecano stessa funzione del precedente Prefabbricazione : processo che prevede la scomposizione dell’edificio nelle sue parti, preparazione elementi in un luogo diverso dal cantiere. La prefabbricazione può essere fuori d’opera, a piè d’opera, a pie di fabbrica. Fasi: produzione viene fatta con stampi metallici , vengono inserite in officina direttamente gli infissi e la tubazioni, gli elementi finiti vengono trasportati in cantiere e assemblati. Gli elementi possono essere classificati in base a tre criteri: geometrico (monodimensionale, bidimensionale, tridimensionale), del peso (leggera: ciò che non è strutturale ne portante, pesante: elementi bidimensionali e tridimensionali,strutturali e portanti), del sistema prefabbricato (chiuso: prevede che si usino solo elementi del sistema prefabbricato, meno flessibile e meno economico , aperto: elementi del sistema integrati con altri sistemi costruttivi) Prefabbricazione metallica: preparazione in officina del elementi, il montaggio avviene tramite bullonature e saldature elettriche, può essere totale o parziale\mista Sistemi costruttivi lignei di tipo prefabbricato: numerosi vantaggi. Ballon Frame: montanti che hanno l’altezza di due piani collocati ad un interasse di 45 cm, connessione mediante chiodatura, basta un solo uomo per montare tutto. Paltform frame: evoluzione del Ballon, montanti ogni 3m max, ogni piano funge da piattaforma per i piani superiori, fondazioni a platea. Blockbau: soprattuto edifici di uno o due piani, forma primordiale delle costruzioni. Setti portanti e sopra delle travi (panconati), incastro maschio-femmina, connessione al terreno mediante un solaio areato, all’involucro invece viene aggiunto uno strato di isolante. Sistema a travi e pilastri: sistema tradizionale riletto in chiave moderna. Montanti lignei verticali ed elementi orizzontali posti a breve distanza di “interasse”, nelle intercapedini c’è l’isolamento Sistemi a panelli intelaiati : dotato di un telaio leggero fatto di segati e dei pannelli formati da più strati incollati tra loro (completo di aperture) X-Lam : pannello monolitico formato da un compensato strutturale di legno massiccio formato da lamelle poste a strati incrociati, arrivano in cantiere pretagliati (basamento a platea, per impedire che il sisma ribalti o faccia scorrere la parete ) Differenza calcestruzzo armato gettato in opera e calcestruzzo precompresso: il primo copre una luce di 5,5\ 6m , il secondo se ha solo la trave precompressa 7,2 m e 10 se ha sia la trave che il solaio.