Weather in The Atmosphere

air mass a large area of air that has uniform temperature, humidity, and pressure. air pressure the force that a column of air applies on the air or a surface below it albedo the measure of the sun's reflectivity on Earth's different surfaces atmosphere the layers of gases surrounding Earth climate average weather conditions in a specific region over a long period of time coriolis effect the movement of wind or currents in a curved path due to Earth's rotation eddy Smaller, temporary loops of swirling water that can travel long distances before dispersing front a boundary between two air masses greenhouse gas a gas in the atmosphere that absorbs part Earth’s outgoing infrared radiation gyre a large circular system of ocean currents. humidity the amount of water vapor in the air hydrosphere system containing all the solid and liquid water on Earth jet stream Narrow bands of high speed wind high in the troposphere that move from west to east land breeze Winds that blow at night from land toward the sea. This is due to the fact that land has a low specific heat capacity and cools faster than water. This creates high pressure over the land at night and thus wind. local winds Winds that blow over short distances polar easterlies cold winds that blow from the east to the west near the North Pole and South Pole. prevailing wind distinct wind patterns caused by differences in pressure and the Coriolis effect sea breeze Winds that blow during the day from the sea toward land. This is due to water having a high specific heat capacity and it does not heat or cool quickly. High pressure then forms over the water during the day and blows toward the land. specific heat capacity The amount of heat that must be added to a substance to increase the tempurature by one degree Celsius storm surge water that has blown outward from the center of a tropical cyclone or hurricane and creates an abnormal rise in ocean waters on the coast surface current Currents near the surface of the ocean. Driven by wind, the Coriolis effect, and continental deflection trade winds Steady winds that flow from east to west between 30°N latitude and 30°S latitude along the equator tropical cyclone a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over tropical or subtropical waters typhoon a tropical cyclone occurring in the Pacific Ocean; especially in the region of the Philippines or the China Sea. weather the short-term atmospheric conditions in a given place and time westerlies steady winds that flow from west to east in the middle latitudes (30- 60 Degrees). These impact our weather in the US. wind shear A large shift in wind speed and

Ect weather data. Trackingthe The forecasters have a lot of help! Meteorologists, or scientists who study weather, collect data from all over the world. They use automated systems at sea, on land, in the air, and in space to help track the weather. At sea, weather buoys collect data on coastal weather conditions. These data help keep people in coastal cities safe. On land, weather-monitoring stations track weather conditions in remote locations. They can send advance notice about incoming weather. Scientists also use Doppler radar towers to observe how storm clouds are moving. Weather balloons and weather satellites collect data from high above Earth’s surface. Weather satellites can track the weather over very large areas. They also help relay data from land-based tools to meteorologists around the world. Scientists launch weather balloons that carry tools, called radiosondes, into the atmosphere. A typical radiosonde measures air temperature, air pressure, and humidity. Weather satellites orbit Earth. They collect weather data, such as cloud cover, and track storms, such as hurricanes. These satellites use radio signals to transmit data back to Earth. Packets of air move across Earth’s surface. An air mass is a large body of air with the same temperature and humidity throughout. An air mass reflects the conditions of the place where it forms. Air masses that form over land are dry. Air masses that form over water are moist. Cold air masses form near the poles, and warm air masses form near the tropics. As air masses move across an area, they can collide. The boundary between two air masses is called a front. Weather changes take place at fronts. For example, as a warm front passes over an area, warm air replaces cooler air and the temperature rises. The movement of air masses and fronts explains why you might be chilly one day and warm the next. At a front, stormy conditions are common. Air masses may form over land or water. The masses that form over land near the poles will be cold and dry. The masses that form over water near the poles will be cold and moist. Which types of air masses will form near the tropics? A cold front forms where a cold air mass bumps into a warmer air mass. The denser cold air pushes the warm air up. Water vapor in the air cools, and large clouds form. Thunderstorms and heavy rain often take place. Cooler temperatures follow a cold front. A warm front forms where a warm air mass moves over a cold air mass. A warm front forms a wider area of clouds and rain than a cold front. Steady rain or snow may fall. Warmer temperatures follow a warm front.

Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering. Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock and mineral away. No rock on Earth is hard enough to resist the forces of weathering and erosion. Together, these processes carved landmarks such as the Grand Canyon, in the U.S. state of Arizona. This massive canyon is 446 kilometers (277 miles) long, as much as 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide, and 1,600 meters (1 mile) deep. Weathering and erosion constantly change the rocky landscape of Earth. Weathering wears away exposed surfaces over time. The length of exposure often contributes to how vulnerable a rock is to weathering. Rocks, such as lavas, that are quickly buried beneath other rocks are less vulnerable to weathering and erosion than rocks that are exposed to agents such as wind and water, As it smoothes rough, sharp rock surfaces, weathering is often the first step in the production of soils. Tiny bits of weathered minerals mix with plants, animal remains, fungi, bacteria, and other organisms. A single type of weathered rock often produces infertile soil, while weathered materials from a collection of rocks is richer in mineral diversity and contributes to more fertile soil. Soils types associated with a mixture of weathered rock include glacial till, loess, and alluvial sediments. Weathering is often divided into the processes of mechanical weathering and chemical weathering. Biological weathering, in whichliving or once-living organisms contribute to weathering, can be a part of both processes. Mechanical Weathering Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering and disaggregation, causes rocks to crumble. Water, in either liquid or solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical weathering. For instance, liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in rock. If temperatures drop low enough, the water will freeze. When water freezes, it expands. The ice then works as a wedge. It slowly widens the cracks and splits the rock. When ice melts, liquid water performs the act of erosion by carrying away the tiny rock fragments lost in the split. This specific process (the freeze-thaw cycle) is called frost weathering or cryofracturing. Figure 4.3 Frost Wedging Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical weathering in a process called thermal stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat) and contract (with cold). As this happens over and over again. the structure of the rock weakens. Over time, it crumbles. Rocky desert landscapes are particularly vulnerable to thermal stress. The outer layer of desert rocks undergo repeated stress as the temperature changes from day Eventually, Lo outer night. layersflake off in thin sheets, a process called exfoliation. Exfoliation contributes to the formation of bornhardts, one of the most dramatic features in landscapes formed by weathering and erosion. Bornhardts are tall, domed, isolated rocks often found areas. in tropical Sugarloaf Mountain, an iconic landmark in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is bornhardt. a Salt also works to weather rock in a process called haloclasty. Saltwater sometimes gets into the cracks and pores of rock. If the saltwater evaporates, salt crystals are left behind. As the crystals grow, they put pressure on the rock, slowly breaking it apart. Plants and animals can be agents of mechanical weathering. The seed of a tree may sprout in soil that has collected in a cracked rock. As the roots grow, they widen the cracks, eventually breaking the rock into pieces. Over time, trees can break apart even large rocks. Even small plants, such as mosses, can enlarge tiny cracks as they grow. Animals that tunnel underground, such as moles and prairie dogs, also work to break apart rock and soil. Other animals dig and trample rock aboveground, causing rock to slowly crumble. Chemical Weathering Chemical weathering changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil.For instance, carbon dioxide from the air or soil sometimes combines with water in a process called carbonation. This produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid, that can dissolve rock. Carbonic acid is especially effective at dissolving limestone. When carbonic acid seeps through limestone underground, it can open up huge cracks or hollow out vast networks of caves. Carlsbad Caverns National Park, in the U.S. state of New Mexico, includes more than 119 limestone caves created by weathering and erosion. The largest is called the Big Room.. With an area of about 33,210 square meters (357,469 square feet), the Big Room is the size of six football fields. Another type of chemical weathering works on rocks that contain iron. These rocks turn to rust in a process called oxidation. Rust is a compound created by the interaction of oxygen and iron in the presence of water. As rust expands, it weakens rock and helps break it apart. Another familiar form of chemical weathering is hydrolysis. In the process of hydrolysis, a new solution (a mixture of two or more substances) is formed as chemicals in rock interact with water. In many rocks, for example, sodium minerals interact with water to form a saltwater solution. Hydration and hydrolysis contribute to flared slopes, another dramatic example of a landscape formed by weathering and erosion. Flared slopes are sometimes nicknamed "wave rocks." Their c-shape is largely concave rock formations a result of subsurface weathering, in which hydration and hydrolysis wear away rocks beneath the landscape's surfaceWeathering and People Weathering is a natural process, but human activities can speed it up. For example, certain kinds of air pollution increase the rate of weathering Burning coal, natural and petroleum releases chemicals such as nitrogen oxide and gas, sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. When these chemicals combine with sunlight and moisture, they change into acids. They then fall back to Earth as acid rain. Acid rain rapidly weathers limestone, marble, and other kinds of stone. The effects of acid rain can often be seen on gravestones, making names and other inscriptions impossible to read. Acid rain has also damaged many historic buildings and monuments. For example, at 71 meters (233 feet) tall, the Leshan Giant Buddha at Mount Emei, China is the world's largest statue of the Buddha. It was carved 1,300 years ago and sat unharmed for centuries. An innovative drainage system mitigates the natural process of erosion But in recent years, acid rain has turned the statue's nose black and made some of its hair crumble and fall.

Create a quiz with the following questions and answersConvection is… The rising motion of warm air A large volume of air A boundary between two different air masses The weight of the Earth’s atmosphere over an area What are isobars? Storms with strong winds, heavy rains, lightning, and thunder Lines on a map to show high and low pressure The study of elevation This front is associated with thunderstorms, heavy rain, snow, and cooler temperatures. Warm front Stationary front Cold front Occluded front What is a barometer? A tool used to measure temperature An instrument used to measure wind speed An instrument used to measure humidity An instrument used to measure air pressure What is a tornado? Storms with strong winds, heavy rains, lightning, and thunder Large, rotating tropical weather systems A rapidly spinning column of air that has touched the ground What is topography? The study of elevation Lines on a map to show high and low pressure The condition of the atmosphere at a given place and time What are air masses? Large, rotating tropical weather systems The study of elevation A large volume of air with the same temperature What is transpiration? The process of a liquid’s surface changing into a gas The process of a gas changing into a liquid The movement of water through the soil The process of water vapor being released by plants. What is nitrification? The process bacteria use to convert nitrogen gas into ammonium ions The process of turning ammonium ions into nitrites and nitrates. The uptake of nitrates in the soil by the roots of plants. The process of turning nitrates into nitrogen gas Fun Fact: Carbon makes up ___ of your mass. 30% 18% 50% 6% What are the reactants of photosynthesis? Carbon dioxide and water Glucose and oxygen What are the reactants of cellular respiration? Carbon dioxide and water Glucose and oxygen What is a storm surge? Flooding caused by hurricanes Region of air where the air pressure is low Any product of the condensation of water vapor High pressure is… A region of air where the air pressure is greater than that of the surrounding area A region of air where the air pressure is lower than that of the surrounding area. Low pressure is… A region of air where the air pressure is greater than that of the surrounding area A region of air where the air pressure is lower than that of the surrounding area. What causes global winds? Photosynthesis The process carbon goes through Uneven heating of the Earth What can humans do to reduce carbon emissions? We can use renewable energy (ex. solar power) We can use non-renewable energy (ex. fossil fuels) Carbon can form stable bonds with many elements and and makes up the backbone of major macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and ___ Nucliec acids Glucose Oxygen Nitrogen What weather is associated with low-pressure systems? Bad weather (ex. Cloudy weather) Good weather (ex. Sunny weather) What is fossilization? The burning of fossil fuels The process where fungi and bacteria decompose dead organisms Dead organisms form fossil fuels over thousands and millions of years What is the first step in the formation of tornadoes? Rising air from the ground pushes up on the swirling air and tips it over A large thunderstorm occurs in a cumulonimbus cloud The funnel grows longer and stretches towards the ground The funnel of swirling air begins to suck up more warm air from the ground What is the difference between thunderstorms and regular storms? Thunderstorms have thunder while regular storms don’t Regular storms have thunder while thunderstorms don’t There is no difference What are hurricanes? Rapidly spinning columns of air touch the ground Large, rotating tropical weather systems Storms with strong winds, heavy rains, lightning, and thunderstorms What is not a hurricane fact? They are the most powerful storms on earth They have an average wind speed of 120-180 km/h They lose their power when they travel over cooler waters or land Storm surges cause the most damages What is the difference between weather and climate? Weather is long-term while climate is short-term Climate is long-term while weather is short-term There is no difference

Based on the provided sources, here is a comprehensive extraction of the information regarding the water cycle, energy transfer, and Earth's wind systems, organized into key points: The Water Cycle and Its Reservoirs • Definition: The water cycle is the continuous movement of water among various reservoirs on Earth. • Water Reservoirs: These are storage locations for water and include: ◦ Oceans, seas, and lakes. ◦ Rivers, glaciers, soil, and rocks. ◦ The atmosphere and living organisms. • Total Volume: The total amount of water on Earth does not change, even when it changes state, because it is constantly being replaced or recycled through the cycle. Main Processes and Energy Transfer The movement of water through the cycle is driven by energy (thermal energy from the Sun) and force (gravity and wind). • Energy Gain (Absorption): ◦ Melting: Water changes from a solid state (ice) to a liquid state and gains energy. ◦ Evaporation: Liquid water changes into a gas state (water vapor) by gaining thermal energy. ◦ Transpiration: A specialized type of evaporation occurring in plants where water vapor is released through tiny holes in leaves called stomata. Approximately 10% of water vapor in the air comes from transpiration. • Energy Loss (Release): ◦ Condensation: Water vapor (gas) cools down and changes back into liquid water, releasing energy. ◦ Freezing: Liquid water changes into a solid state (ice) and loses energy. • Other Key Steps: ◦ Precipitation: Water falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail (snow pellets). ◦ Runoff: Water flows over Earth's surface into streams, rivers, and eventually larger bodies of water like oceans. ◦ Collection: Rainwater is collected in different water bodies to start the cycle again. Forces Driving Water Movement • Gravity: The main force that pulls water downward. It is responsible for: ◦ Bringing precipitation (rain and snow) from clouds to the surface. ◦ Moving ice in glaciers from higher to lower elevations. ◦ Causing liquid water to flow downhill into rivers and seas. ◦ Leakage: Pulling liquid water down into the ground to reach groundwater reservoirs. • Wind: Another force that affects water movement and transports water to different locations on Earth. Atmospheric Processes • Cloud Formation: Water vapor attaches to particles such as dust or smoke in the air and condenses into tiny droplets. When millions of these droplets join, they become heavy and fall as rain. • Convection: The transfer of heat in liquids and gases. ◦ Warm air/liquid: Becomes less dense, lighter, and rises upward. ◦ Cold air/liquid: Is more dense, heavier, and moves downward to replace the warm fluid. ◦ This process leads to convection currents, which help determine regional climates and drive wind and ocean currents. Solar Radiation and Climate The amount of solar energy reaching Earth differs from place to place, which affects the weather: • Hottest Regions (Equator): Sun rays fall perpendicular (vertical). Heat is concentrated on a small area, making the weather hot. • Moderate Regions: Sun rays fall semi-inclined. Heat is distributed over a larger area, making the weather warm. • Coolest Regions (Poles): Sun rays fall very slanted (inclined). Heat is spread over a very large area, making the weather very cold. Earth's Wind System • Wind Formation: Wind is generated when warm air (heated by the Sun) rises and is replaced by cooler air flowing from nearby areas. • Factors Affecting Wind: The amount of solar radiation and the rotation of Earth determine global wind directions. • Global Wind Cycle: Unequal heating between the equator and the poles generates a constant wind system. Warm air rises at the equator and moves toward the poles, while cold air from the poles moves toward the equator. • Importance: If there were no wind, the equator would become extremely hot, the poles would freeze solid, and many ecosystems would disappear. Practical Examples • Turkey’s Salt Lake: High evaporation in the summer can turn this large lake into a small puddle or dry it up completely. It is a critical site for flamingos, which migrate there to breed and feed on algae in the shallow, warm water.

1. What calm area near the Equator is characterized by minimal wind movement? Answer: Doldrums 2. What are visible accumulations of tiny water droplets or ice crystals in the air called? Answer: Clouds 3. Which cloud type is high, thin, and made of ice crystals? Answer: Cirrus 4. What do we call the apparent deflection of winds and currents due to Earth’s rotation? Answer: Coriolis effect 5. In which hemisphere do storms rotate clockwise? Answer: Southern Hemisphere 6. What are winds that blow consistently from one direction over a specific area called? Answer: Prevailing winds 7. What is the area where prevailing winds meet called? Answer: Convergence zone 8. Which wind zone blows from the polar regions toward the mid-latitudes? Answer: Polar easterlies 9. In which hemisphere do storms rotate counterclockwise? Answer: Northern Hemisphere 10. Which wind zone blows from west to east across the mid-latitudes? Answer: Westerlies 11. What are the calm areas around 30° north and south latitude with little precipitation called? Answer: Horse latitudes 12. What winds blow toward the Equator from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere? Answer: Trade winds 13. Which cloud type is mid-level and blankets the sky, often bringing overcast weather? Answer: Stratus 14. Which cloud type is puffy and can bring heavy rain or snow depending on height? Answer: Cumulus 15. What prefixes indicate the height of clouds in the atmosphere? Answer: Cirro-, alto-, nimbo-

THE SOAR SYSTEM A solar system is a group of planets and other celestial bodies that revolve around a star. A solar nebula- a vast cloud of gas and dust, mostly hydrogen and helium. How the Solar System Form • COLLAPSE AND SPINNING DISK FORMATION - Gravity pulls material inward. The cloud flattens into a spinning disk due to conservation of angular momentum. • PROTOSTAR FORMATION- (BIRTH OF THE SUN). Material collects at the center, and begun to heat up. When it reaches to 10 million KELVIN, nuclear fusion begins. thus, SUN is born. • PLANETESIMALS AND PROTOPLANETS. Dust and gas in the disk stick together via static and gravitational forces. These form planetesimals, which grow into protoplanets collision and accretion. • PLANET FORMATION. Inner disk: too hot for gas rocky planets form Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. • PLANET FORMATION. Outer disk: gas and ice giants. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune • LEFTOVER DEBRIS. Remaining materials forms moon, asteroids, comets and dwarf planets. DIFFERENT HYPOTHESIS IN THE FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 1. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS- The Solar system formed from a rotating cloud of Gas and Dust (solar nebula). As it rotates conservation of angular momentum caused the cloud to flatten into a disk. the Sun formed at the center (DISK) while planets formed from the surrounding materials through acceleration. thus, it explains the coplanar and nearly circular orbit of the planets all planets orbits around the sun on the same flat, disk shaped plane. Proposed by Immanuel Kant in 1755 and Modified by Pierre Simon Laplace in 1756. PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS. The Solar system formed from a rotating cloud of Gas and Dust (solar nebula). As it rotates conservation of angular momentum caused the cloud to flatten into a disk. 2. Protoplanet hypothesis. Builds on the nebular model but focuses more on the role of planetesimals which then form into full planets. PROCESS: - Small solid particles stick together through collisions. As collisions takes place, it grows into kilometer-sized planetesimals. Gravitational interactions lead to the formation of planets. Lead to formation of steroids belts and varying planet sizes 3. Encounter hypothesis. States that the sun encountered a rogue star. The encounter led to the removal of hot gas from both stars due to their gravitational interaction. The hot gas then accumulated and formed the planets. The materials from the less dense rogue star formed the other planets, while that from the sun formed the inner planets. 4. TIDAL HYPOTHESIS. (also called the Tidal Theory) is an early scientific idea about how the solar system might have formed. Proposed by James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys. A massive star passed very close to the early Sun. The hot gas then accumulated and formed the planets. The materials from the less dense rogue star formed the other planets, while that from the sun formed the inner planets. Streams of hot gas were drawn out from the Sun in elongated shape. These streams eventually condensed and cooled, forming planets, moons, and other bodies in the solar system. 5. Not accepted theory. Later studies showed the streams of hot gas would disperse too quickly into space instead of condensing into planets. The theory also couldn’t explain the specific orbital patterns and compositions we see today. Modern science favors the Nebular Hypothesis, which explains solar system formation through the collapse of a rotating gas cloud. Earth as the only habitable planet 1. Right Distance from the Sun (The Goldilocks Zone). Not too hot, not too cold — just right for liquid water to exist. 2. Atmosphere with Oxygen. Earth has a mix of gases, especially oxygen, which most living things need to survive. 3. Liquid Water. Earth has oceans, rivers, and rain — water is essential for all life. 4. Magnetic Field. Earth’s magnetic field protects us from harmful solar radiation. 5. Stable Climate. The atmosphere and natural cycles keep temperatures and weather mostly stable over time. 6. Rich Resources. Earth has soil for growing food, minerals, and energy sources that support life and technology. Solar explorations 1. AUGUST 6, 2014. First space craft to orbit a comet (ROSETTA PROBE). Captures the comet photograph. -Comets have coma and tail as it approaches to the sun. 2. JULY 14, 2015. NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft made history by becoming the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto, giving us our first close-up look at the dwarf planet. First time visiting Pluto. Before this, Pluto was just a blurry dot in telescope images. Revealed a surprising world New Horizons showed mountains of ice, smooth plains, and a heart-shaped region called Tombaugh Regio. Changed what we knew. Scientists thought Pluto would be dull and frozen — instead, it turned out to be geologically active and incredibly complex. 3. SEPTEMBER 8, 2016. NASA launched OSIRIS-REx, the first U.S. mission to collect a sample from an asteroid and return it to Earth. Changed what we knew. Scientists thought Pluto would be dull and frozen — instead, it turned out to be geologically active and incredibly complex. OSIRIS-REx stands for: Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security–Regolith Explorer It was sent to study the asteroid Bennu, a near-Earth asteroid about 500 meters wide. Mission Goals: Collect a sample of surface material from Bennu Study the asteroid’s omposition, structure, and history. Mission Goals: Help scientists understand the origins of the solar system. Learn more about asteroids that could impact Earth. 4. August 12, 2018: Launch of NASA’s Parker Solar Probe, the first spacecraft to "touch" the Sun by flying through its outer atmosphere, called the corona. Mission Goal: To study the Sun up close and help scientists understand: How the solar wind (a stream of charged particles) is formed. Why the Sun’s corona is hotter than its surface. What causes solar storms that can affect Earth’s satellites and power grids. 5. November 26, 2018: NASA’s Insight Lander Touches Down on Mars. Its mission was focused on studying the interior of the Red Planet (crust, mantle, and core of the planet). Why the Sun’s corona is hotter than its surface. What causes solar storms that can affect Earth’s satellites and power grids 6. November 26, 2018: NASA’s Insight Lander Touches Down on Mars. Its mission was focused on studying the interior of the Red Planet (crust, mantle, and core of the planet) 7. JULY 30, 2020 PERSEVERANCE PROBE. Perseverance rover as part of the Mars 2020 mission aboard an Atlas V-541 rocket This marked a major step in Mars exploration. 8. DECEMBER 25, 2021-JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE. Investigate exoplanets’ atmospheres for signs of habitability. Observe the first galaxies formed after the Big Bang. Study the formation of stars and planetary systems. Look deeper into the infrared universe than ever before. RESULTS OF EXPLORATION • Evidence of Ancient Life-friendly Environment. • Sedimentary rocks formed in water-rich environments. • Signs of clay and carbonate minerals, which can preserve biosignatures (traces of past life). • Evidence of Ancient Life-friendly Environment. • Sedimentary rocks formed in water-rich environments. • Signs of clay and carbonate minerals, which can preserve biosignatures (traces of past life). • Evidence of Ancient Life-friendly Environment. • Sedimentary rocks formed in water-rich environments. • Signs of clay and carbonate minerals, which can preserve biosignatures (traces of past life).

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