Wat is de samenstelling van het bloed in de poortader?

Zuurstofarm en voedingsstofrijk

zuurstofrijk en voedingsstof arm

zuurstofrijk en voedingsstofrijk

Pericard heeft als functie...

Het vocht van het hart bijeen houden

Ruimte geven voor de kransslagaders & kransaders

8.4 en 8.5 | Quizalize

THE FIDE LAWS OF CHESS. Introduction FIDE Laws of Chess cover over-the-board play. The Laws of Chess have two parts: 1. Basic Rules of Play and 2. Competitive Rules of Play. The English text is the authentic version of the Laws of Chess (which were adopted at the 93rd FIDE Congress at Chennai, India) coming into force on 1 January 2023. Preface. The Laws of Chess cannot cover all possible situations that may arise during a game, nor can they regulate all administrative questions. Where cases are not precisely regulated by an Article of the Laws, it should be possible to reach a correct decision by studying analogous situations which are regulated in the Laws. The Laws assume that arbiters have the necessary competence, sound judgement and absolute objectivity. Too detailed a rule might deprive the arbiter of his/her freedom of judgement and thus prevent him/her from finding a solution to a problem dictated by fairness, logic and special factors. FIDE appeals to all chess players and federations to accept this view. A necessary condition for a game to be rated by FIDE is that it shall be played according to the FIDE Laws of Chess. It is recommended that competitive games not rated by FIDE be played according to the FIDE Laws of Chess. Member federations may ask FIDE to give a ruling on matters relating to the Laws of Chess. BASIC RULES OF PLAY. Article 1: The Nature and Objectives of the Game of Chess 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 The game of chess is played between two opponents who move their pieces on a square board called a ‘chessboard’. The player with the light-coloured pieces (White) makes the first move, then the players move alternately, with the player with the dark-coloured pieces (Black) making the next move. A player is said to ‘have the move’ when his/her opponent’s move has been ‘made’. The objective of each player is to place the opponent’s king ‘under attack’ in such a way that the opponent has no legal move. 1.4.1 The player who achieves this goal is said to have ‘checkmated’ the opponent’s king and to have won the game. Leaving one’s own king under attack, exposing one’s own king to attack and also ’capturing’ the opponent’s king is not allowed. 1.4.2 The opponent whose king has been checkmated has lost the game. 1.5 If the position is such that neither player can possibly checkmate the opponent’s king, the game is drawn (see Article 5.2.2). Article 2: The Initial Position of the Pieces on the Chessboard 2.1 2.2 The chessboard is composed of an 8 x 8 grid of 64 equal squares alternately light (the ‘white’ squares) and dark (the ‘black’ squares). The chessboard is placed between the players in such a way that the near corner square to the right of the player is white. At the beginning of the game White has 16 light-coloured pieces (the ‘white’ pieces); Black has 16 dark-coloured pieces (the ‘black’ pieces). These pieces are as follows: A white king usually indicated by the symbol K A white queen Two white rooks Two white bishops Two white knights Eight white pawns A black king A black queen Two black rooks Two black bishops Two black knights Eight black pawns usually indicated by the symbol Q usually indicated by the symbol R usually indicated by the symbol B usually indicated by the symbol N usually indicated by the symbol usually indicated by the symbol K usually indicated by the symbol Q usually indicated by the symbol R usually indicated by the symbol B usually indicated by the symbol N usually indicated by the symbol Staunton Pieces p Q K B N R 9 2.3 The initial position of the pieces on the chessboard is as follows: 2.4 The eight vertical columns of squares are called ‘files’. The eight horizontal rows of squares are called ‘ranks’. A straight line of squares of the same colour, running from one edge of the board to an adjacent edge, is called a ‘diagonal’. Article 3: The Moves of the Pieces 3.1 It is not permitted to move a piece to a square occupied by a piece of the same colour. 3.1.1 If a piece moves to a square occupied by an opponent’s piece the latter is captured and removed from the chessboard as part of the same move. 3.1.2 A piece is said to attack an opponent’s piece if the piece could make a capture on that square according to Articles 3.2 to 3.8. 3.1.3 A piece is considered to attack a square even if this piece is constrained from moving to that square because it would then leave or place the king of its own colour under attack. 3.2 The bishop may move to any square along a diagonal on which it stands. 3.3 The rook may move to any square along the file or the rank on which it stands. 3.4 The queen may move to any square along the file, the rank or a diagonal on which it stands. 3.5 3.6 3.7 When making these moves, the bishop, rook or queen may not move over any intervening pieces. The knight may move to one of the squares nearest to that on which it stands but not on the same rank, file or diagonal. 3.7 When making these moves, the bishop, rook or queen may not move over any intervening pieces. The knight may move to one of the squares nearest to that on which it stands but not on the same rank, file or diagonal. The pawn: 3.7.1 The pawn may move forward to the square immediately in front of it on the same file, provided that this square is unoccupied, or 3.7.2 on its first move the pawn may move as in 3.7.1 or alternatively it may advance two squares along the same file, provided that both squares are unoccupied, or 3.7.3 the pawn may move to a square occupied by an opponent’s piece diagonally in front of it on an adjacent file, capturing that piece. 3.7.3.1 A pawn occupying a square on the same rank as and on an adjacent file to an opponent’s pawn which has just advanced two squares in one move from its original square may capture this opponent’s pawn as though the latter had been moved only one square. 3.7.3.2 This capture is only legal on the move following this advance and is called an ‘en passant’ capture. 3.7.3.3 When a player, having the move, plays a pawn to the rank furthest from its starting position, he/she must exchange that pawn as part of the same move for a new queen, rook, bishop or knight of the same colour on the intended square of arrival. This is called the square of ‘promotion’. 3.7.3.4 The player's choice is not restricted to pieces that have been captured previously. 3.7.3.5 This exchange of a pawn for another piece is called promotion, and the effect of the new piece is immediate. 3.8 There are two different ways of moving the king: 3.8.1 by moving to an adjoining square. 3.8.2 by ‘castling’. This is a move of the king and either rook of the same colour along the player’s first rank, counting as a single move of the king and executed as follows: the king is transferred from its original square two squares towards the rook on its original square, then that rook is transferred to the square the king has just crossed. 3.8.2.1 The right to castle has been lost: 3.8.2.1.1 If the king has already moved, or 3.8.2.1.2 With a rook that has already moved. 3.8.2.2 Castling is prevented temporarily: 3.8.2.2.1 if the square on which the king stands, or the square which it must cross, or the square which it is to occupy, is attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces, or 3.8.2.2.2 if there is any piece between the king and the rook with which castling is to be effected. 3.9 The king in check: 3.9.1 The king is said to be 'in check' if it is attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces, even if such pieces are constrained from moving to the square occupied by the king because they would then leave or place their own king in check. 3.9.2 No piece can be moved that will either expose the king of the same colour to check or leave that king in check. 3.10 Legal and illegal moves; illegal positions: 3.10.1 A move is legal when all the relevant requirements of Articles 3.1 – 3.9 have been fulfilled. 3.10.2 A move is illegal when it fails to meet the relevant requirements of Articles 3.1 –3.9. 3.10.3 A position is illegal when it cannot have been reached by any series of legal moves. Article 4: The Act of Moving the Pieces 4.1 4.2 Each move must be played with one hand only. Adjusting the pieces or other physical contact with a piece: 4.2.1 Only the player having the move may adjust one or more pieces on their squares, provided that he/she first expresses his/her intention (for example by saying “j’adoube” or “I adjust”). 4.2.2 Any other physical contact with a piece, except for clearly accidental contact, shall be considered to be intent. 4.3 Except as provided in Article 4.2.1, if the player having the move touches on the chessboard, with the intention of moving or capturing: 4.3.1 one or more of his/her own pieces, he/she must move the first piece touched that can be moved. 4.3.2 one or more of his/her opponent’s pieces, he/she must capture the first piece touched that can be captured. 4.3.3 one or more pieces of each colour, he/she must capture the first touched opponent’s piece with his/her first touched piece or, if this is illegal, move or capture the first piece touched that can be moved or captured. If it is unclear whether the player’s own piece or his/her opponent’s was touched first, the player’s own piece shall be considered to have been touched before his/her opponent’s. 4.4 If a player having the move: 4.4.1 touches his/her king and a rook he/she must castle on that side if it is legal to do so 4.4.2 deliberately touches a rook and then his/her king he/she is not allowed to castle on that side on that move and the situation shall be governed by Article 4.3.1. 4.4.3 intending to castle, touches the king and then a rook, but castling with this rook is illegal, the player must make another legal move with his/her king (which may include castling with the other rook). If the king has no legal move, the player is free to make any legal move. 4.4.4 promotes a pawn, the choice of the piece is finalised when the piece has touched the square of promotion. 4.5 4.6 If none of the pieces touched in accordance with Article 4.3 or Article 4.4 can be moved or captured, the player may make any legal move. The act of promotion may be performed in various ways: 4.6.1 the pawn does not have to be placed on the square of arrival. 4.6.2 removing the pawn and putting the new piece on the square of promotion may occur in any order. 4.6.3 If an opponent’s piece stands on the square of promotion, it must be captured. 4.7 When, as a legal move or part of a legal move, a piece has been released on a square, it cannot be moved to another square on this move. The move is considered to have been made in the case of: 4.7.1 A capture, when the captured piece has been removed from the chessboard and the player, having placed his/her own piece on its new square, has released this capturing piece from his/her hand. 4.7.2 Castling, when the player's hand has released the rook on the square previously crossed by the king. When the player has released the king from his/her hand, the move is not yet made, but the player no longer has the right to make any move other than castling on that side, if this is legal. If castling on this side is illegal, the player must make another legal move with his/her king (which may include castling with the other rook). If the king has no legal move, the player is free to make any legal move. 4.7.3 Promotion, when the player's hand has released the new piece on the square of promotion and the pawn has been removed from the board. 4.8 4.9 A player forfeits his/her right to claim against his/her opponent’s violation of Articles 4.1 – 4.7 once the player touches a piece with the intention of moving or capturing it. 4.8. A player forfeits his/her right to claim against his/her opponent’s violation of Articles 4.1 – 4.7 .4.9. If a player is unable to move the pieces, an assistant, who shall be acceptable to the arbiter, may be provided by the player to perform this operation. Article 5: The Completion of the Game 5.1.1 The game is won by the player who has checkmated his/her opponent’s king. This immediately ends the game, provided that the move producing the checkmate position was in accordance with Article 3 and Articles 4.2 – 4.7. 5.1.2 The game is lost by the player who declares he/she resigns (this immediately ends the game), unless the position is such that the opponent cannot checkmate the player’s king by any possible series of legal moves. In this case the result of the game is a draw. 5.2.1 The game is drawn when the player to move has no legal move and his/her king is not in check. The game is said to end in ‘stalemate’. This immediately ends the game, provided that the move producing the stalemate position was in accordance with Article 3 and Articles 4.2 – 4.7. 5.2.2 The game is drawn when a position has arisen in which neither player can checkmate the opponent’s king with any series of legal moves. The game is said to end in a ‘dead position’. This immediately ends the game, provided that the move producing the position was in accordance with Article 3 and Articles 4.2 – 4.7. 5.2.3 The game is drawn upon agreement between the two players during the game, provided both players have made at least one move. This immediately ends the game. COMPETITIVE RULES OF PLAY Article 6: The Chessclock 6.1 ‘Chessclock’ means a clock with two time displays, connected to each other in such a way that only one of them can run at a time. ‘Clock’ in the Laws of Chess means one of the two time displays. Each time display has a ‘flag’. ‘Flag-fall’ means the expiration of the allotted time for a player. 6.2 Handling the chessclock: 6.2.1 During the game each player, having made his/her move on the chessboard, shall pause his/her own clock and start his/her opponent’s clock (that is to say, he/she shall press his/her clock). This “completes” the move. A move is also completed if: 6.2.1.1 6.2.1.2 the move ends the game (see Articles 5.1.1, 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 9.2.1, 9.6.1 and 9.6.2), or the player has made his/her next move, when his/her previous move was not completed. 6.2.2 A player must be allowed to pause his/her clock after making his/her move, even after the opponent has made his/her next move. The time between making the move on the chessboard and pressing the clock is regarded as part of the time allotted to the player. 6.2.3 A player must press his/her clock with the same hand with which he/she made his/her move. It is forbidden for a player to keep his/her finger on the clock or to ‘hover’ over it. 6.2.4 The players must handle the chessclock properly. It is forbidden to press it forcibly, to pick it up, to press the clock before moving or to knock it over. Improper clock handling shall be penalised in accordance with Article 12.9. 6.2.5 6.2.6 Only the player whose clock is running is allowed to adjust the pieces. If a player is unable to use the clock, an assistant, who must be acceptable to the arbiter, may be provided by the player to perform this operation. His/Her clock shall be adjusted by the arbiter in an equitable way. This adjustment of the clock shall not apply to the clock of a player with a disability. 6.3 Allotted time: 6.3.1 When using a chessclock, each player must complete a minimum number of moves or all moves in an allotted period of time including any additional amount of time added with each move. All these must be specified in advance. 6.3.2 The time saved by a player during one period is added to his/her time available for the next period, where applicable. In the time-delay mode both players receive an allotted ‘main thinking time’. Each player also receives a ‘fixed extra time’ with every move. The countdown of the main thinking time only commences after the fixed extra time has expired. Provided the player presses his/her clock before the expiration of the fixed extra time, the main thinking time does not change, irrespective of the proportion of the fixed extra time used. 6.4 Immediately after a flag falls, the requirements of Article 6.3.1 must be checked. 6.5 Before the start of the game the arbiter shall decide where the chessclock is placed. 6.6 At the time determined for the start of the game White’s clock is started.6.7. Default time: 6.7.1 The regulations of an event shall specify a default time in advance. If the default time is not specified, then it is zero. Any player who arrives at the chessboard after the default time shall lose the game unless the arbiter decides otherwise. 6.7.2 If the regulations of an event specify that the default time is not zero and if neither player is present initially, White shall lose all the time that elapses until he/she arrives, unless the regulations of an event specify, or the arbiter decides otherwise. 6.8 A flag is considered to have fallen when the arbiter observes the fact or when either player has made a valid claim to that effect. 6.9 Except where one of Articles 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3 applies, if a player does not complete the prescribed number of moves in the allotted time, the game is lost by that player. However, the game is drawn if the position is such that the opponent cannot checkmate the player’s king by any possible series of legal moves. 6.10 Chessclock setting: 6.10.1 Every indication given by the chessclock is considered to be conclusive in the absence of any evident defect. A chessclock with an evident defect shall be replaced by the arbiter, who shall use his/her best judgement when determining the times to be shown on the replacement chessclock. 6.10.2 If during a game it is found that the setting of either or both clocks is incorrect, either player or the arbiter shall pause the chessclock immediately. The arbiter shall install the correct setting and adjust the times and move-counter, if necessary he/she shall use his/her best judgement when determining the clock settings. 6.11.1 If the game needs to be interrupted, the arbiter shall pause the chessclock. 6.11.2 A player may pause the chessclock only in order to seek the arbiter’s assistance, for example when promotion has taken place and the piece required is not available. 6.11.3 The arbiter shall decide when the game restarts. 6.11.4 If a player pauses the chessclock in order to seek the arbiter’s assistance, the arbiter shall determine whether the player had any valid reason for doing so. If the player has no valid reason for pausing the chessclock, the player shall be penalised in accordance with Article 12.9. 6.12.1 Screens, monitors, or demonstration boards showing the current position on the chessboard, the moves and the number of moves made/completed, and clocks which also show the number of moves, are allowed in the playing hall. 6.12.2 The player may not make a claim relying only on information shown in this manner.

Elabora un cuestionario con 3 opciones múltiples, los siguientes conceptos : Concepto 1: Aduana Definición: Lugar habilitado por la autoridad aduanera para el despacho de mercancías y la prestación de servicios relacionados con el comercio exterior. Concepto 2: Autoridad Aduanera Definición: Entidad encargada de aplicar y supervisar el cumplimiento de la Ley Aduanera y las disposiciones relacionadas con el comercio exterior. Concepto 3: Mercancías Definición: Todos los objetos, productos y cosas susceptibles de ser comercializados y sujetos a importación o exportación. Concepto 4: Valor en Aduana Definición: El valor determinado de acuerdo con las normas y métodos establecidos en la Ley Aduanera y su Reglamento. Concepto 5: Declarante Definición: Persona que realiza la declaración de las mercancías ante la autoridad aduanera. Concepto 6: Importación Definición: Introducción de mercancías extranjeras al territorio aduanero. Concepto 7: Exportación Definición: Envío de mercancías nacionales o nacionalizadas fuera del territorio aduanero. Concepto 8: Despacho Aduanero Definición: Conjunto de trámites y actividades necesarios para la importación o exportación de mercancías. Concepto 9: Agente Aduanal Definición: Persona autorizada para representar a terceros en trámites aduaneros y realizar el despacho de mercancías. Concepto 10: Pedimento Definición: Documento que contiene la declaración de las mercancías y los datos necesarios para su despacho. Concepto 11: Reconocimiento Aduanero Definición: Inspección física o documental de las mercancías realizada por la autoridad aduanera. Concepto 12: Destinatario Definición: Persona a quien se envían las mercancías importadas o exportadas. Concepto 13: Pasajero Definición: Persona que cruza la frontera y lleva consigo mercancías no destinadas a la venta. Concepto 14: Régimen Aduanero Definición: Situación jurídica en la que se encuentran las mercancías en el territorio aduanero. Concepto 15: Deposito Fiscal Definición: Lugar autorizado para el resguardo de mercancías bajo control aduanero. Concepto 16: Mercancías Restringidas Definición: Mercancías cuya importación o exportación está sujeta a restricciones o regulaciones. Concepto 17: Mercancías Prohibidas Definición: Mercancías cuya importación o exportación está prohibida por ley. Concepto 18: Valor Comercial Definición: Precio al que se venden mercancías entre partes independientes en una transacción de compraventa. Concepto 19: Valor en Transacción de Mercancías Similares Definición: Valor de las mercancías importadas de características similares a las declaradas. Concepto 20: Valor en Transacción de Mercancías Idénticas Definición: Valor de las mercancías importadas que son idénticas a las declaradas. Concepto 21: Valor en Transacción de Mercancías Valoradas Definición: Valor de las mercancías importadas que no pueden ser valoradas de acuerdo con otros métodos.

Semana 1: Definir los conceptos básicos de taxonomía, clasificación y biodiversidad. Identificar las características fundamentales de los seres vivos. Semana 2: Clasificar los organismos en dominios (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) según el tipo de células (procariota, eucariota). Reconocer las características distintivas de cada dominio. Semana 3: Explorar la clasificación de los reinos dentro del dominio Eukarya (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista). Identificar las características principales de cada reino. Semana 4: Adentrarse en la clasificación de los filos dentro de los reinos Animalia y Plantae. Reconocer ejemplos representativos de cada filo. Semana 5: Descubrir el concepto de especie y su importancia en la clasificación taxonómica. Aplicar criterios para identificar especies en diferentes entornos. Semana 6: Analizar los niveles de organización taxonómica (reino, filo, clase, orden, familia, género, especie). Utilizar claves taxonómicas simples para clasificar organismos. Semana 7: Reconocer la importancia de la clasificación taxonómica para el estudio de la biodiversidad. Explorar la diversidad de especies en diferentes ecosistemas. Semana 8: Analizar las relaciones de parentesco entre los organismos a través de árboles filogenéticos. Construir árboles filogenéticos sencillos para representar relaciones evolutivas.

Semana 1: Introducción a la Reproducción ¿Qué es la reproducción? Tipos de reproducción: asexual y sexual Importancia de la reproducción para la vida en el planeta Semana 2: Reproducción en Plantas Reproducción asexual en plantas: Propagación vegetativa (esquejes, injertos, etc.) Esporulación Reproducción sexual en plantas: Flor, estructura y función Polinización: mecanismos y agentes polinizadores Fecundación y formación de frutos y semillas Aplicación de los diferentes tipos de reproducción de plantas según las condiciones del medio Semana 3: Reproducción en Animales Reproducción asexual en animales: Gemación Fragmentación Regeneración Reproducción sexual en animales: Sistemas reproductores masculino y femenino Fecundación interna y externa Desarrollo embrionario y fetal Parto y nacimiento Variabilidad genética y evolución Preservación de especies: medidas de conservación Semana 4: Reproducción en el Ser Humano Sistema reproductor masculino y femenino Ciclo menstrual Fecundación y embarazo Parto y nacimiento Lactancia materna Semana 5: Reproducción en la Adolescencia Cambios físicos y emocionales en la adolescencia Madurez sexual y fertilidad Embarazo en la adolescencia: riesgos y consecuencias físicas y psicológicas Prevención del embarazo en la adolescencia: métodos anticonceptivos Responsabilidad sexual y toma de decisiones Semana 6: Infecciones de Transmisión Sexual (ITS) ¿Qué son las ITS? Vías de transmisión de las ITS Síntomas y consecuencias de las ITS Prevención de las ITS: uso correcto del condón y otras medidas Importancia de las pruebas de detección de ITS Semana 7: VIH/SIDA ¿Qué es el VIH/SIDA? Mecanismos de transmisión del VIH Síntomas y etapas del VIH/SIDA Pruebas de detección del VIH Prevención del VIH/SIDA: uso correcto del condón y otras medidas Vivir con VIH/SIDA: tratamiento y apoyo Semana 8: Salud Sexual y Reproductiva Definición de salud sexual y reproductiva Derechos sexuales y reproductivos Importancia de la educación sexual integral Autonomía corporal y toma de decisiones informadas Promoción de una sexualidad responsable y saludable

Some substances, such as macromolecules and nutrients, are too large to pass through the cell membrane by the transport processes you have studied so far. Cells employ two other transport mecha- nisms—endocytosis and exocytosis—to move such substances into or out of cells. Endocytosis and exocytosis are also used to transport large quantities of small molecules into or out of cells at a single time. Both endocytosis and exocytosis require cells to expend energy. Therefore, they are types of active transport. Endocytosis Endocytosis (EN-doh-sie-TOH-sis) is the process by which cells ingest external fluid, macromolecules, and large particles, including other cells. As you can see in Figure 5-7, these external materials are enclosed by a portion of the cell’s membrane, which folds into itself and forms a pouch. The pouch then pinches off from the cell membrane and becomes a membrane-bound organelle called a vesicle. Some of the vesicles fuse with lysosomes, and their con- tents are digested by lysosomal enzymes. Other vesicles that form during endocytosis fuse with other membrane-bound organelles. Two main types of endocytosis are based on the kind of material that is taken into the cell: pinocytosis (PIEN-oh-sie-TOH-sis) involves the transport of solutes or fluids, and phagocytosis (FAG-oh-sie-TOH-sis) is the movement of large particles or whole cells. Many unicellular organisms feed by phagocytosis. In addition, certain cells in animals use phagocytosis to ingest bacteria and viruses that invade the body. These cells, known as phagocytes, allow lysosomes to fuse with the vesicles that contain the ingested bacteria and viruses. Lysosomal enzymes then destroy the bacteria and viruses before they can harm the animal. CYTOSOL EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT During endocytosis, the cell membrane folds around food or liquid and forms a small pouch. The pouch then pinches off from the cell membrane to become a vesicle. FIGURE 5-7 vesicle from the Latin vesicula, meaning “bladder” or “sac” Word Roots and Origins www.scilinks.org Topic: Endocytosis Keyword: HM60505 mb06se_homs02.qxd 5/18/07 11:03 AM Page 105 106 CHAPTER 5 1. Explain the difference between passive trans- port and active transport. 2. What functions do carrier proteins perform in active transport? 3. What provides the energy that drives the sodium-potassium pump? 4. Explain the difference between pinocytosis and phagocytosis. 5. Describe the steps involved in exocytosis. 6. How do endocytosis and exocytosis differ? How can that difference be seen? CRITICAL THINKING 7. Analyzing Information During intense exercise, potassium tends to accumulate in the fluid surrounding muscle cells. What membrane protein helps muscle cells counteract this tendency? Explain your answer. 8. Evaluating Differences How does the sodium- potassium pump differ from facilitated diffusion? 9. Relating Concepts The vesicles formed during pinocytosis are much smaller than those formed during phagocytosis. Explain. SECTION 2 REVIEW Vesicle Cell membrane EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT CYTOSOL During exocytosis, a vesicle moves to the cell membrane, fuses with it, and then releases its contents to the outside of the cell. FIGURE 5-8 INSIDE OF CELL Vesicle OUTSIDE OF CELL Exocytosis Exocytosis (EK-soh-sie-TOH-sis) is the process by which a substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the sub- stance to the cell surface and then fuses with the membrane to let the substance out of the cell. This process, illustrated in Figure 5-8, is basically the reverse of endocytosis. During exocytosis, vesi- cles release their contents into the cell’s external environment. Figure 5-8 also shows a photo of a vesicle during exocytosis. Cells may use exocytosis to release large molecules such as pro- teins, waste products, or toxins that would damage the cell if they were released within the cytosol. Recall that proteins are made on ribosomes and packaged into vesicles by the Golgi apparatus. The vesicles then move to the cell membrane and fuse with it, deliver- ing the proteins outside the cell. Cells in the nervous and endocrine systems also use exocytosis to release small molecules that control the activities of other cells.

I Le contrat de vente classique 1. L’intérêt pour la PMI de connaître la diversité des contrats commerciaux Les PME-PMI sont régulièrement amenées à conclure des contrats commerciaux. Il est donc nécessaire pour l’assistant(e) de gestion de connaître les différents contrats et les règles qui les régissent. 2. Le transfert de propriété Dès qu’il y a accord entre le vendeur et l’acheteur, il y a transfert de propriété. L’acheteur doit donc assumer les risques dès le transfert de propriété. Pour pallier ce risque, il peut prévoir dans le contrat une clause de réserve en propriété, qui a pour effet de différer le transfert de la propriété et des risques qu’il entraine jusqu'à conclusion totale du contrat. 3. Les obligations des parties Les garanties dans le contrat de vente se décomposent ainsi :  Les garanties obligatoires : o la garantie légale de conformité permettant au client d’obtenir la réparation, le remboursement ou le remplacement du produit défectueux o la garantie contre les vices cachés : se sont des défauts non visibles au moment de l’achat qui rendent le bien inutilisable  Les garanties complémentaires ou commerciales : elles sont facultatives pour le client. Elles peuvent être gratuites (mise à disposition d’un produit au client durant une réparation) ou payantes (extension de garantie pour l’achat d’une machine à laver) Exercice d’application 4. Les recours possibles Lorsqu’une procédure est engagée, la juridiction compétente pour statuer l’affaire est le tribunal de commerce du défendeur si le client et l’entreprise sont des commerçants. Les sanctions les plus courantes sont : - infliger des pénalités de retard - obtenir une réduction de prix - faire exécuter le contrat par une autre entreprise - obtenir des dommages et intérêts II Les particularités du contrat de vente commerciale Le contrat présente certaines particularités que la PME doit connaitre : On peut donc considérer qu’un bon de commande est un contrat de vente commerciale, dans la mesure où il réunit ses clauses. Enfin, il existe des situations ou les engagements peuvent différés. C’est le cas : - de la vente à distance : le client dispose d’un délai de rétractation de 14 jours - la vente avec arrhes : si le client verse des arrhes, il pourra annuler le contrat mais perdra le montant versé à l’entreprise. III Les contrats de maintenance et de sous6traitance 1. Le contrat de maintenance C’est un contrat par lequel une entreprise se charge de vérifier, d’entretenir ou de réparer un appareil technique ou une installation complexe. Il doit donc spécifier : - la définition de la prestation et le lieu de réalisation - la durée du contrat - le prix unitaire ou forfaitaire 2. Le contrat de sous-traitance Il permet à une entreprise appelée « donneur d’ordre » de confier la réalisation d’une prestation à une autre entreprise appelée « sous traitant ». L’entreprise s’engage à payer le sous traitant selon les modalités prévues dans le contrat et reste donc responsable de la réalisation de la prestation devant le client. Avantages et inconvénients de la sous-traitance : IV Créer un contrat via un réseau de franchise Afin de développer son activité, l’assistant(e) de gestion peut conclure des contrats commerciaux avec des partenaires étrangers La franchise est une méthode de collaboration entre, d’une part, une entreprise, le franchiseur, et, d’autre part, une ou plusieurs entreprises, les franchisés. Son objet est d’exploiter un concept de franchise mis au point par le franchiseur. Tous sont porteurs de la même enseigne, symbole de l’identité et de la réputation du réseau. La garantie de qualité est assurée par la transmission et le contrôle du respect du savoir-faire et par la mise à disposition d’une gamme homogène de produits, de services et/ou de technologies. a. Le franchiseur C’est un entrepreneur indépendant qui a mis au point et exploité avec succès un concept original dans plusieurs unités pilotes. Il apporte à ses franchisés une formation initiale et permanente pour leur permettre d’appliquer son concept et consacre à la promotion de sa marque, à la recherche et à l’innovation, les moyens humains et financiers permettant d’assurer le développement et la pérennité de son concept. b. Le franchisé C’est un entrepreneur indépendant sélectionné par le franchiseur. Il doit avoir la volonté de collaborer loyalement à la réussite du réseau de franchise en adhérant au principe d’homogénéité de ce réseau, tel que défini par le franchiseur. Il engage des moyens financiers, afin de rétribuer le franchiseur pour ses apports (paiement d’un droit d’entrée et d’un pourcentage sur le chiffre d’affaires). c. Les avantages et les inconvénients du contrat de franchise pour le franchiseur et pour le franchisé. Avantages Inconvénients Franchiseur – Développer son réseau à moindres frais. – Faire des économies d’échelle. – Maîtriser le développement de son concept. – Développer son image, sa notoriété. – Augmenter ses parts de marché. – Accroître son chiffre d’affaires. – Organiser des campagnes publicitaires à l’échelon national. – Transmettre son savoir-faire à des commerçants indépendants. – Assurer une assistance technique et des formations. – Avoir des franchisés qui déprécient l’image de l’entreprise. Franchisé – Avoir une notoriété dès l’ouverture du commerce. – Rester un commerçant indépendant et être responsable de son entreprise. – Bénéficier du savoir-faire du franchiseur. – Bénéficier d’une assistance technique, de formations, d’une logistique d’approvisionnements, etc. – Respecter la charte et les normes du franchiseur, ce qui limite sa liberté de commerçant indépendant. – S’acquitter des droits d’entrée et de redevance. – Avoir une obligation d’approvisionnement exclusif chez le franchiseur. d. Les clés de la réussite de cette forme de commerce Les clés de la réussite sont : – la collaboration commerciale et technique ; – l’association du savoir-faire du franchiseur et de l’esprit entrepreneurial du franchisé ; – les structures organisationnelles sont plus simples et plus économiques qu’en succursalisme car un bon franchisé est motivé et n’a pas besoin d’être poussé ; – c’est un système rapide et évolutif pour couvrir un marché car investissements et compétences sont partagées. e. Les chiffres clés de la franchise en 2019 f. La typologie des franchisés • 60% des franchisés sont des hommes • 50% des franchisés ont entre 35 et 49 ans • 66% des franchisés sont d’anciens salariés du privé • Chaque franchisé emploie en moyenne 7 salariés • 84% des réseaux sont toujours la propriété de leur fondateur • Chaque réseau crée en moyenne 8 nouveaux points de vente par an • 29% des réseaux ont des points de vente à l’étranger

4.Animal World! 5.1-V.8 Multiple EN-GR

4.Animal World! 5.1-V.8 Multiple GR-EN

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