legislation that directs specific funds to projects within districts or states

trading of votes on legislation by members of Congress to get their earmarks passed into legislation

efforts by Congress to ensure that executive branch agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their officials, are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals

the process of determining the number of representatives for each state using census data

states’ redrawing of boundaries of electoral districts following each census

the intentional use of redistricting to benefit a specific interest of group of voters

drawing of district boundaries into strange shapes to benefit a political party

a district in which voters of a minority ethnicity constitute and electoral majority within that electoral district

the uneven distribution of the population among legislative districts

being already in office as opposed to running for the first time

the leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by an election of its members

the person who has the most power in the Senate and is the head of the party with the most seats

a tactic through which an individual senator may use the right of unlimited debate to delay a motion or postpone action on a piece of legislation

a program that provides benefits for those who qualify under the law, regardless of income

period at the end of a presidential term when Congress may block presidential initiatives and nominees

powers expressly granted in the Constitution

powers not laid out in the Constitution but used to carry out presidential duties

written comments issued by presidents while signing a bill into a law that usually consist of political statements or reasons for signing the bill but that may also include a president’s interpretation of the law itself

presidential appeals to the public to pressure other branches of government to support his policies

the authority of the Supreme Court to strike down a law or executive action if it conflicts with the Constitution

letting a previous decision stand

a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should be cautious in overturning laws

a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should wield the power of judicial review, sometimes creating bold new policies

the departments and agencies within the executive branch that carry out the laws of the nation

coordinated and mutually beneficial activities of the bureaucracy, Congress, and interest groups to achieve shared policy goals

the power of a president to reject a bill passed by Congress, sending it back to the originating branch with objections

spending required by existing laws that is “locked in” the budget

spending for programs and policies at the discretion of Congress and the president

control of the presidency and on or both chambers of Congress split between the two major parties

a system of hiring and promotion based on competitive testing results, education, and other qualifications rather than politics and personal connections